Assault Rifle

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Assault rifle is a term describing a type of automatic rifle generally defined as a selective fire rifle or carbine, chambering intermediate-powered ammunition. They are categorized between the larger and heavier light machine gun, which is intended more for sustained automatic fire in a support role, and the smaller submachine gun, which fires a handgun cartridge rather than a rifle cartridge. Assault rifles are the standard small arms in most modern armies, having largely replaced or supplemented larger, more powerful rifles ('battle rifles') such as the WWII-era M1 Garand and Tokarev SVT. Examples of assault rifles incorrectly include the AR-15 as it does not fire as an automatic, its military incarnation, the M16 rifle is a fully automatic weapon, the ubiquitous AK-47 genus, and the bullpup FAMAS. More exotic examples include the LR 300 By Z-M Weapons and the HK G36, which makes extensive use of modern polymers and computer aided design.

The name is a translation of the German word Sturmgewehr coined by Adolf Hitler to describe the Sturmgewehr 44, the firearm generally considered the first practical widely used assault rifle and effective progenitor of the concept. It gradually became the common (if not technically accurate) term for the sub-family of similar firearms, and also has been used retroactively with earlier weapons possessing such traits. While it is not a completely accepted or technically correct label, it is widely used to differentiate current small-caliber weapons such as the AR-15 and AK-74 from earlier semi-automatic or select-fire rifles that fired larger cartridges, such as the M1 Garand, M14, HK G3, CETME, and FN FAL, which are sometimes referred to as 'battle rifles'. Technically, all are 'rifles' of different caliber, with some being semi-automatic or having select-fire capability, thus being either 'semi-automatic rifles' or 'automatic rifles'. Since the smaller-caliber weapons tend to be distinct in construction and modern use from their counterparts, the term 'assault rifle' has proven useful and popular for referring to them specifically.

History

1900s to the 1930s: Light automatic rifles using rifle cartridges

These automatic firearms tended to use used pre-existing rifle cartridges, kinetic energy ranged between 3,000–5,000 J (2,200–3,700 foot-pounds), velocites of 750–900 m/s (2,460–2,950 ft/s) and bullets of 9 to 13 g (139–200 grains).

The first true assault rifle was probably the Italian-made Cei-Rigotti, which was developed in the 1890s and finished around 1900, at the beginning of the 20th century; it never entered military service, however. The first service assault rifle was the Russian Federov Avtomat of 1916, chambered for the Japanese Arisaka 6.5 × 50 mm rifle cartridge, which was only used in small numbers due to supply problems.

The Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR) was a World War I-era weapon that used a full-power round. It was an automatic rifle by today's definition, and designed for single accurate shots and suppressive automatic fire. The weight of roughly 15 pounds (7 kg) meant that it was rather cumbersome for closer quarters. Later developments added heavier barrels and bipods that lent it to being used more like today's light machine gun or squad automatic weapon, though it did help establish the doctrine of use for light selective fire rifles. The BAR was produced in large numbers, widely adopted, and served into the 1960s with the U.S. military and other nations. While it was chambered for 30-06 and therefore did not use an intermediate cartridge, it was an intermediate weapon between the newly adopted submachine guns and heavier machine guns such as the Lewis Gun. The similar French Chauchat of WWI was also produced in large numbers (250,000), but suffered from significant flaws and was quickly discarded.

During WWI, a few weaker submachine guns also entered service, such as the Villar Perosa, the Beretta Model 1918 and the MP18. These weapons fired cartridges derived from pistol chamberings — 9 mm Glisenti and 9 mm Bergmann. The 9 mm Bergman was based on the 9 mm Parabellum, with reduced charge to reduce recoil in the MP18. The developers of the Thompson submachine gun (also developed during the 1910s) originally intended to use rifle-powered rounds. However, a mechanical system that could handle their power was not found and the .45 ACP cartridge was chosen instead. These firearms are considered part of the submachine gun class, but were an important step in the development of assault rifles.

1930s: Automatic intermediate weapons

Continuing evolution of the assault rifle was primarily driven by ammunition. The handgun ammunition used by submachine guns was too weak and limited in effective range. Conversely, full-sized military rifle calibers were uncomfortable to fire repeatedly and difficult to control during fully-automatic or rapid fire because of significant recoil; cost of design and manufacture was also higher. One attempt to combine an intermediate cartridge with an automatic rifle by the Italian arms company Beretta resulted in the MAB 38 (Moschetto Automatico Beretta 1938). The MAB 38 used a Fiocchi 9M38 cartridge and a higher-powered 9 mm Parabellum cartridge, which could provide longer range fire. The effective range was about 200 m, although it was declared to be effective up to 500 m. The MAB 38 was a multipurpose weapon.

In 1938, prior to World War II, the United States introduced the M1 Carbine, which was an intermediate power weapon chambered for the .30 Carbine cartridge. While select-fire capability was initially planned for the M1 Carbine, this was dropped from the first version. Later in the war, selective fire variants were made (M2 and M3 Carbines). The weapon had higher stopping power than submachine guns, but was not as powerful as full-size automatic rifles such as the Browning Automatic Rifle. The longer barrel (18-inch) provided the carbine with higher muzzle velocity than pistols and submachine guns chambered for the same .30 round.

Originally a secondary weapon for issue to rear-area and support troops, the M1 Carbine series was found well-suited for close quarter battle engagements, a concept that would be re-applied later. It marked the first time in which such an intermediate weapon would be mass-produced in such large numbers — it became the most produced American weapon of the war, with millions made. The M1 Carbine series would remain in service with the U.S. military until replaced by the M16 rifle in the 1960s; it continued to be used in other nations (notably Israel, where it is still used frequently in a variety of forms).

1940s and early 1950s: Maschinenkarabiner, Sturmgewehr, & the AK-47

Some of these automatic firearms used pre-existing rounds; others used new intermediate cartridges. Kinetic energy ranged between 1,400–2,100 J (1,033–1,550 foot-pounds), muzzle velocities of 600–800m/s (1,970–2,625 ft/s) and bullets of 7–9g (108–139 grains).

Germany, like other countries, had observed and studied the emerging demand of infantry rifles to evolve since World War I, and their factories made a variety of non-standard cartridges, therefore having less incentive to retain their existing calibers. The 7.92 × 30 mm cartridge was an example of these experiments; in 1941, it was improved to 7.92 × 33 mm Infanterie Kurz Patrone ("Infantry Short Cartridge"). In 1942, it was again improved as Maschinenkarabiner Patrone S, and in 1943, Pistolen Patrone 43mE; then, finally, Infanterie Kurz Patrone 43. The similarity in size between the 7.92x33 mm German cartridge and the 7.62x33 mm developed for the M1 Carbine is a curious coincidence, but was ultimately nothing more than independent yet similar solutions to the same problem.

In 1942, Walther presented the Maschinenkarabiner ("automatic carbine", abbr. MKb), named MKb42(W). In the same year, Haenel presented the MKb42(H), designed by Hugo Schmeisser as a result of this program. Rheinmetall-Borsig (some said Krieghoff) presented its FG 42 (Fallschirmjaeger Gewehr 42, sponsored by Hermann Göring) though this was in a different role, and using a heavy 8 × 57 mm (8 mm Mauser) cartridge, which was not an intermediate round. War-time tests in Russia indicated the MKb42(H) performed better than the other two. Schmeisser developed it first as the MP43, then MP43/1, and finally as the MP44/Sturmgewehr 44 (abbreviated StG44). It immediately entered large scale production. More than 5,000 units had been produced by February 1944, and 55,000 by the following November.

Following the end of the war, the Soviet Union developed the AK-47, which was vaguely similar in visual concept and layout to the German StG44, though quite different mechanically. It fired the 7.62 × 39 mm cartridge, which had been developed during WWII. The round was similar to the StG44's in that the bullet was of a similar caliber to the larger, full-size Russian rifle ammunition.

Late 1950s and 1960s: Lighter automatic weapons and lighter, smaller bullets

Many of these automatic firearms used intermediate cartridges with much lighter bullets and smaller calibers, but fired at very high velocity, kinetic energy ranged between 1300–1800J (960–1,330 foot-pounds), velocities of 900–1050m/s (2,950–3,450 ft/s), and bullets of 3–4g (46–62 grains).

Many nations continued the development of traditional high-powered rifles with ranges of 500 meters (550 yards) and beyond. Most designs of this period used low-caliber but high-velocity ammunition, with some experiments in flechettes and other exotic ammunition.

Statistical studies of World War II battles performed by the U.S. Army revealed that infantry combat beyond 300 meters (325 yards) was rare. The Russians saw no reason to make a rifle that shot beyond a rifleman's ability to aim. Therefore, a lighter, less-powerful cartridge could be effective. This permitted a lighter rifle and enabled troops to carry more ammunition, making them more autonomous — a greater amount of the lighter ammunition could be transported in the same amount of space. In addition, the smaller size and handiness of an assault rifle would benefit tank crews, support troops, and units with missions other than front line combat. The 5.56 × 45 mm NATO cartridge was developed in the late 1950s, and was adopted for use in the M16 assault rifle. The M16A1 version soon followed to rectify issues found during use in the Vietnam War. The M16A2 was a further refinement and upgrade introduced in 1982.

The smaller-caliber military cartridges such as the 5.56x45 mm and 5.45x39 mm are sometimes considered less lethal than the previous generation of assault rifle rounds, such as the 7.62x39 mm and 7.62x51mm, that fired larger rifle caliber bullets with reduced propellant or reduced cases, but the lighter small-caliber bullets achieve higher velocities, more favorable ballistic properties, and reduced carrying weight.

One aspect of the smaller caliber ammunition that is sometimes hotly debated is its fragmentation behavior, which some types rely on to varying degrees for their stopping capability. Stopping capability is the effectiveness of the round in completely stopping the target when it hits--either killing or fully incapacitating. Within a certain range of ballistic conditions, the lighter 5.56 mm and 5.45 mm will, upon striking tissue, first tumble and then fragment. Beyond 100 yards or when fired from shorter barrels, such bullets can often fail to fragment upon impact. How integral or detrimental this behavior is to the sum effectiveness of such ammunition is part of a debate with many viewpoints and schools of thought, and no undisputed conclusion at the present. Ultimately, any pointed (spitzer) round will tumble in soft tissue. If the jacket has a cannelure like the U.S. 5.56 × 45 mm M193 round and the bullet itself is in the proper ballistic state, the bullet will fragment, inflicting significant blood loss and internal damage, as well as a wound profile that is more complex to address medically.

Part of the dispute over small-caliber rounds arises here. Blood loss leads to indirect incapacitation, but often takes longer than direct destruction of tissue. Most notably presented by former Defense Secretary Robert McNamara as a reason for adoption of the M16 over the M14, the theory that wounding one soldier will take him out of action plus some of his allies who will stop fighting to assist him was wed to the heavily-disputed findings of Project SALVO, which concluded that the main factor in inflicting casualties in infantry combat was solely rounds fired — aiming had negligible impact. Following the US military's combat experience in Vietnam, questions arose over the reliability of the fragmentation behavior of the 5.56 mm bullet, the validity of the wounded-plus-helpers theory, and the effectiveness or wisdom of forgoing individual marksmanship for un-aimed volumes of fire. The United States was the only country at the time using 5.56 mm ammunition, while other NATO nations used the much larger 7.62x51 mm cartridge, and Communist forces used the 7.62x39mm.

The general effectiveness of the 5.56x45 mm cartridge was questioned; experience had shown that it did not always fragment, the bullet was light enough to be easily deflected or divert radically from its path after passing through even a soft or very thin object, and the theory that enemy soldiers would drop what they were doing to aid a wounded comrade was at best unreliable and at worst wishful thinking. The heavier 7.62 mm bullets everyone else was using, some argued, hit harder with more mass, didn't deflect or destabilize as readily, and more reliably out-and-out killed what it hit. (Some of the substantiated issues were later addressed in 1982 with the changes made in the M16A2, which used a new bullet with different ballistic characteristics than its M16A1 predecessor.)

While the debate about the effectiveness of the 5.56/5.45 mm bullet versus the 7.62 mm continued, some interesting developments did arise.

1970s, 1980s, 1990s: New form factors and features, tactical use, and a changing battlefield

Many of these automatic firearms usually used the same rounds as in older eras, but focused on using new form factors, materials, and added features like standard telescopic and reflex sights.

The running debate over 5.56 mm vs 7.62 mm ammunition, and the prominent argument by 7.62 mm proponents that "the Russians got it right with a .30 cal (7.62mm)" cartridge, was stirred significantly in 1974 when the Soviet Union also developed its own smaller-caliber cartridge, the 5.45 × 39 mm, which was used in the AK-74, the successor of the AK-47/AKM.

In the 1980s and 1990s, the most notable changes since adoption of high velocity, smaller-caliber ammunition were designs that utilized new form factors, sights, electronics, and materials, as well as modularity. A number of bullpup rifles entered service in the late 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. Although bullpup rifles had existed since the 1930s, the United Kingdom's EM2 was one of the few bullpup assault rifles prior to this time. Examples of the new trend include the FAMAS, Steyr AUG, and SA80. All three are bullpup rifles that make heavy use of composites and plastics with ambidextrous controls, and the latter both added a low-power telescopic sight to the standard service version. The SAR-21, the Tavor TAR-21, and QBZ-95 follow a similar trend as well, with a bullpup configuration and heavy use of composites.

The Heckler & Koch G36, adopted in the late 1990s by Spain and Germany, is of the traditional configuration, but also has integral telescopic and red dot sights and composite exterior. The G36C variant uses a different barrel assembly, foregrip, and a slightly shorter folding stock to make the weapon carbine length, and features a low full-length rail mount along the top of the rifle in place of the carrying handle and sight assembly, plus shorter rails on the foregrip. The XM8 rifle, developed from the G36, had similar features, but also added more electronics such as laser sight, round counter, and integral infrared laser and pointers.

Through the 1990s, modular accessories for use on rifles, of a variety of types, started to become widespread with the rapidly increasing practice of mounting Picatinny-style rails on firearms. This was primarily driven by the growing visibility (and number) of tactical police, counter-terrorist units, special forces, and other groups that desired the capability to specifically tailor their weapons — be it to the situation at hand, their operational specialty, etc. Flashlights, visible lasers, infrared lights and lasers, ergonomic accesories such as vertical foregrips and folding or collapsable buttstocks, and a plethora of other options appeared. Many law enforcement and tactical groups, including some of the most influential, also contributed to the progression by shifting from using submachine guns to very compact assault rifles, usually with small-caliber (5.56mm) ammunition.

Intertwined with the growth of the modular accessories was the concept of rifles being modular themselves. The G36, for example, can be converted to a compact carbine, a standard rifle, or a squad support weapon (light machine gun) and back again simply by swapping modular parts in a matter of moments. Interchangeable or quick-detachable barrel assemblies of different lengths are emerging for some weapons, with ingenious retrofit kits to provide similar capailities on older types. The AR15 in particular has an entire industry that has grown to make variations of every component of the rifle. An incredible variety of upper receivers of many types of operation (bolt, direct gas impingement, gas piston, blowback) utilizing different ammunition than the original 5.56x45 mm have been developed, firing both pistol and rifle cartridges ranging between target rounds such as .17 and .22 Rimfire, pistol rounds of .380 ACP to .50 AE, and more common assault rifle rounds such as 7.62x51mm, all the way up to heavy machine gun rounds such as the .50 BMG (12.7x99mm). In a paradox many never expected, an AK variant has been developed that fires the 5.56x45 mm round, while a variant of the M4 carbine (a compact M16) has been created that can use AK-47 magazines and its 7.62x39 mm ammunition.

The trend in the new designs, and very likely future ones, is towards more integrated features and lighter weight with new materials and configurations. Introduction of a new ammunition would require retooling factories, phasing out conventional ammunition, and making general infrastructure changes that are considered by many military planners to be too expensive to undertake. In an effort to avoid the problems of a completely new cartridge, the 77-grain Mk262 Mod0 bullet for the 5.56x45 mm chambering, developed to address continuing issues in some cases with the effectiveness of the 5.56 mm round, has started to gain acceptance.

Since the adoption of the M16 over the M14, some groups of shooting pundits have supported the return to, or reintroduction of, larger caliber rounds — usually the 7.62x51 mm NATO specifically, which is made to perform like the full-sized 30-06 in an assault-rifle sized cartridge. Going back to the 7.62mm, it is argued, would improve conventional lethality. Other individuals have suggested an increase in caliber, to the 6–7 mm range, with rifle round velocities and lower mass bullets: a kind of intermediate philosophy between the smaller caliber–faster modern rounds and the standard caliber–slower rounds of the previous generation. China in the late 1980s introduced a 5.8 × 42 mm round, with an initial velocity of 930 m/s, 4.26 g bullet and 1,842 J of energy, China claims the new round provides superior performance and lethality to the NATO and modern Soviet intermediate rounds. In the United States, Remington has developed the 6.8 mm Remington SPC cartridge, which is the same overall length at the 5.56 x 45 mm NATO round but fires a bullet the same caliber as the .270 Winchester hunting cartridge. Its similar size to the 5.56 × 45 mm means that existing rifles can be converted without an excessive amount of re-work. Development of a 4.73 mm caseless ammunition and advanced assault rifle in the 1970–1980s by Germany was effectively halted by the German reunification in 1990, and that rifle never entered full production.

Interestingly, exactly that renaissance of 7.62 mm weapons has begun to occur recently. To some degree in Iraq, but particularly in Afghanistan, some soldiers are beginning to use modernized M14s, M21s, and AR10s (the 7.62x51 mm predecessor of the AR15). With a longer effective range, the 7.62 mm is proving necessary to fight effectively at much longer ranges.

It has also shown usefulness against enemies who have been seen to take several hits from 5.56 mm bullets and not be incapacitated, killed, or sometimes even deterred. That unpleasant surprise is mostly attributed to a mixture of the long-range ballistic troubles of the 5.56 bullet, or the enemy being in a mental state of narcotic or religious frenzy. Similar stopping-power problems against unusually-tenacious opponents were noticed with the 5.56 mm in Somalia in 1993 against militia fighters high on khat; they also precipitated the development and adoption in 1910 of the M1911 .45 pistol after the Army's experience in the Philippines with fanatic Moros fighters, who considered resistance to the US forces a jihad and frequently would keep fighting after multiple hits with the Army's standard .38 caliber revolver.

Assault weapons vs. Automatic weapons

Primarily used only in the United States, the term assault weapon is generally used to describe a variety of semi-automatic firearms that have certain, mostly cosmetic features that have long been associated with military/police use. The 1994 Federal Assault Weapons Ban dictated that such features as a folding stock, flash suppressor, bayonet lug, pistol grip, night sights, muzzle grenade launcher, or the ability to accept a detachable magazine with a capacity larger than ten rounds, constituted a firearm being defined as an assault weapon. While that law expired in 2004, some states such as California and New York had previously adopted similar bans that remain in effect. A common public misconception persists that the assault weapons ban restricted weapons capable of fully-automatic fire, such as assault rifles and machine guns. Fully-automatic weapons, however, were unaffected by the ban; they have been continuously heavily regulated since the National Firearms Act of 1934. Subsequent laws such as the Gun Control Act of 1968 and the Firearm Owners Protection Act of 1986 also affect the importation and civilian ownership of fully-automatic firearms.

The term 'assault weapon' thus is frequently used erroneously to describe machine guns. Many states and localities still use the term assault weapon variously, largely following the current California and prior Federal models loosely.

It is interesting to note, as well, that the term "assault weapon" has never existed as a classification until the early 1990s, as a result of political pressure to regulate certain weapons believed to be more dangerous than others. The only designated use, as mentioned above, is the german name for the STG model automatic rifles. Russia and America referred to their automatic rifles as such or termed them carbines, a proper classification name for weapons firing a rifle-type cartridge and possessing a shortened barrel for shorter range engagements.

Further reading

• Popenker, M. (2004). Assault Rifle. Wiltshire: The Crowood Press Ltd. ISBN 1861267002

See also

• Automatic firearm for clarification on similar categories
• Battle rifle
• Federal assault weapons ban (USA)
• Firearm action
• Gas-operated
• List of firearms
• List of Countries and Their Service Rifles

External links

• [Assault Rifles and their Ammunition: History and Prospects]
• [Israeli Special Forces Assault Rifles at isayeret.com]

 

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