Axis powers

Encyclopedia : A : AX : AXI : Axis powers

World Map with the participants in World War II. The Allies depicted in green (those in light green entered after the Attack on Pearl Harbor), the Axis Powers in orange, and neutral countries in grey.

Area under Axis control over the course of the war shown in black

Axis Powers signing with Saburo Kurusu (Japan's Ambassador to Germany), Galeazzo Ciano (Italy's Foreign Minister) and Fuhrer Adolf Hitler.

The Axis Powers were those nations opposed to the Allies during the Second World War. The three major Axis Powers, Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan, referred to themselves as the "Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis" and were part of an alliance. At their zenith, the Axis Powers ruled empires that dominated large parts of Europe, Asia, Africa and the Pacific Ocean, but the Second World War ended with their total defeat. Like the Allies, membership of the Axis was fluid, and some nations entered and later left the Axis during the course of the war.

Origins

Imperial Japan (Yosuke Matsuoka up front) and Nazi Germany toasting to the new Axis Pact in Tokyo, Japan.

The term was first used by Benito Mussolini, in November 1936, when he spoke of a Rome-Berlin axis arising out of the treaty of friendship signed between Italy and Germany on October 25, 1936. Mussolini declared that the two countries would form an "axis" around which the other states of Europe would revolve. This treaty was forged when Fascist Italy, originally opposed to Nazi Germany, was faced with opposition to its war in Abyssinia from the League of Nations and received support from Germany. Later, in May 1939, this relationship transformed into an alliance, called by Mussolini the "Pact of Steel". An Axis was declared between Germany and Italy by Galeazzo Ciano, foreign minister of Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini on October 25, 1936.

The term "Axis Powers" formally took the name after when Tripartite Treaty was signed by Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan in September 27, 1940 in Berlin, Germany. The pact was subsequently joined by Hungary (November 20 1940), Romania (November 23 1940), Slovakia (November 24 1940) and Bulgaria (March 1 1941). The Italian name Roberto briefly acquired a new meaning from "Rome-Berlin-Tokyo" between 1940 and 1945.

Major Axis Powers

• Nazi Germany, officially Deutsches Reich meaning German Empire, under Führer Adolf Hitler, and during the last days of the war, President Karl Dönitz and Chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk.
• Fascist Italy, first as the Kingdom of Italy and then as the Italian Social Republic (or Repubblica Sociale Italiana), under Il Duce Benito Mussolini who ruled in the name of King Victor Emmanuel III until September 1943, when the King dismissed Mussolini and joined the Allies.
• Imperial Japan, officially Dai Nippon Teikoku meaning Empire of Great Japan but sometimes called Empire of Japan, under Emperor Hirohito and Prime Minister Hideki Tojo, and during the last days of the war, Prime Ministers Kuniaki Koiso and Kantaro Suzuki.

Membership of the Axis

Thailand did not sign the Tripartite Pact but did conclude a military alliance with Japan in 1942 and declared war on the United States and Great Britain.

Finland did not join the Tripartite Pact, but did attack Soviet Union with Germany, actively and efficiently contributing to this fronts warfare, and later making an alliance pact with Germany.

Tripartite Pact

Hungary

Romania

Kingdom of Romania

Traditionally an ally of France and England, Romania sought German protection from Soviet aggression by adhering to the Tripartite Pact on November 23 1940. The Soviet Union had occupied and annexed its province of Moldova on June 28 1940, and Germany had forced it to relinquish Transylvania to Hungary on August 30 1940. German troops entered the country in 1941, and used it as a base for the invasion of the Soviet Union as well as a key supplier of resources, especially oil and grain. Romanian troops fought with Germany against the Soviet Union, regaining Moldova. At more than 300 thousand men, Romanian military casualties are considered to be the second greatest of the Axis in Europe, second only to those of the Germans. After joining the Allies on August 23, 1944, Romania fought on the Allied side, regaining the part of Transylvania lost to Hungary, but losing Moldova, Basarabia and Bucovina to the USSR, as well as not regaining the Cadrilater, lost to Bulgaria in 1940.

Slovakia

Bulgaria

Kingdom of Bulgaria

Bulgaria, a German ally during the First World War, joined the Axis on March 1, 1941. Tsar Boris III decided to join with Germany after Hitler promised to Bulgaria all the San Stefano Treaty lands, which included the cities of Nish, Solun, Skopje, and more. He also promised the Bulgarian people that they would finally unite with their brothers—the Macedonians. In that course of action, the war became national for the people of Bulgaria and the Bulgarian soldiers fought many battles.

Bulgaria was forced to leave the Axis when the Red Army approached its northern border, and on September 9 1944, the Bulgarian Communist Party staged a coup, and Bulgaria became the People's Republic of Bulgaria. Bulgaria joined the Allies in 1944, but did not receive any new territory after the war ended.

Yugoslavia

Yugoslavia ceased to exist except as a "government-in-exile" headquartered in London, England. Germany and Italy annexed Slovenia, Italy annexed Dalmatia, Bulgaria annexed Macedonia, and Italian-controlled Albania annexed Montenegro. Croatia was transformed into a new Nazi state called the "Independent State of Croatia" which joined the Axis, and Serbia was put under a puppet regime led by pro-Axis Serbian general Milan Nedić.

In 1941 Ivan Mihailov's Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) welcomed Bulgaria's annexation of Vardar Macedonia. Bulgaria claimed that land was historically Bulgarian. In the beginning of September 1944, when the Bulgarian government left the Axis and declared war on Nazi Germany, Berlin offered Mihailov support to declare Macedonia's independence, but he declined.

There was a fierce Yugoslav resistance against the Nazis. The Partisans were the biggest resistance group, which was leaded by Josip Broz Tito. They temporarily managed to free parts of the land from the Nazi occupation and form a small free state called "The Uzicka Republic" within the Serbian territory. Serbian royalist Chetnik troops fought the Croatian Ustase and Nazis. Chetnik troops and the Partisans fought each other during WWII because of their inconsonance in political views. Yugoslavia was liberated in 1944 by Yugoslav resistance fighters and Soviet troops.

Independent State of Croatia

On April 10 1941, the extreme-right nationalist Ustaše organization proclaimed the "Independent State of Croatia" on parts of occupied Yugoslav territory. The leader of the state was Ante Pavelić. The state was largely founded on nationalist aspirations due to the previous mistreatment of Croats and other South Slavic people in Yugoslavia because of the Royal Yugoslav government's policy of pro-Serb bias. Fascist forces subsequently sent hundreds of thousands of Serbs to concentration camps where most died.

Italian Social Republic

Flag of the Italian Social Republic.

The Italian Social Republic (Repubblica Sociale Italiana in Italian) succeeded the Kingdom of Italy as a member of the Axis in 1943. On July 25 1943, King Victor Emmanuel III, in agreement with Fascist leaders, dismissed Benito Mussolini from office and had him arrested upon leaving the palace. Italy then switched sides declaring war on Germany. In a spectacular raid led by Otto Skorzeny, Mussolini was freed. The northern half of Italy was occupied by German forces and on September 23 1943, Mussolini proclaimed the Italian Social Republic. This state, centred at Salò, decreased in territory as the Western Allied forces advanced north and eventually came to an end in 1945, when the last German forces on Italian soil capitulated and withdrew or surrendered.

Thailand

Japanese forces began invading Thailand at nine areas on the morning of December 8 1941. Thai border troops initially resisted the invasion, but Field Marshal Phibunsongkhram, the prime minister, ordered the cessation of resistance. On December 21 a military alliance with Japan was signed and on January 25 1942 Thailand declared war on Britain and the United States of America. The Thai ambassador to the United States, Seni Pramoj did not deliver his copy of the declaration of war, so although the British reciprocated by declaring war on Thailand and consequently considered it a hostile country, the USA did not. The Seri Thai was established during these first few months. Thai forces conducted their biggest offensive of the war in May 1942, taking Kengtung in northern Burma from the Chinese 93rd Division.

Parallel Seri Thai organisations were established in Britain and inside Thailand. Queen Ramphaiphanee was the nominal head of the Britain-based organisation, and Pridi Phanomyong, then regent, headed its largest contingent, which was operating within the country. Aided by elements of the military, secret airfields and training camps were established while Allied agents fluidly slipped in and out of the country.

As the war dragged on, the Thai population came to resent the Japanese presence. In June 1944, Phibun was overthrown in a coup d'état engineered by the Seri Thai. The new civilian government attempted to aid the Seri Thai while at the same time maintaining cordial relations with the Japanese.

After the war, US influence prevented Thailand from being treated as an Axis country, but Britain demanded three million tons of rice as reparations and the return of areas annexed from the British colony of Malaya during the war and invasion. Thailand also had to return the portions of British Burma, French Indochina, French Cambodia and French Laos that had been taken.

Finland

Finns refer to the conflict with the Soviet Union as the Continuation War, viewing it as continuation of the Winter War. The Finns sought to regain the territory lost in the Winter War and to conquer East Karelia.

Open warfare started with Soviet air offensive to Finnish airfields June 25, which was followed by Finland declaration of war on the next day. Great Britain declared war on Finland on December 6, 1941, after repeatedly calling on Finland to cease its attacks on the Soviet Union. The United States never declared war on Finland.

Finland was never a signatory to the Tripartite Treaty, although it did sign the Anti-Comintern Pact of 1941. Finland refused to place Finnish forces under joint command with Germans and at times acted independently of the Germans, as in refusing to cut the railroad to Murmansk at Louhi and refusing to attack or bombard the city itself during the Siege of Leningrad.

The relationship more closely resembled a formal alliance during the six weeks of the Ryti-Ribbentrop Agreement, which was presented as a German condition for much needed help with munitions and air support as the Soviet offensive coordinated with D-day threatened Finland with complete occupation.

President Ryti shouldered the responsibility for the alliance with Nazi Germany personally. The alliance was decreed a "personal union" and his successor, President Mannerheim, declared it void right after Ryti left office, which he did after the Soviet offensive was stalled and separate peace again became a realistic possibility. The Soviets pushed the Finnish authorities to organize a trial against Ryti and some members of his cabinet, in which they were given a prison sentence on the basis of a retroactive law.

Finland switched sides in 1944 attacking the German forces in Finland in what Finns call the Lapland War.

Dependent on (or controlled by) the Axis

Albania

Under the hapless King Zog, Albania had been in Italian orbit since the 1920s. Italian had been taught in Albanian schools since before the Great War and a great degree of Italian forts existed to "protect" the Albanian people during the inter-war period.

On April 7, 1939, Italian troops landed in Albania, quickly occupying the country and forcing Zog into exile. Five days after the beginning of the invasion, the Albanian parliament voted to join the nation to Italy "in personal union" by offering the Albanian crown to Victor Emmanuel III, who then became King of Italy, Emperor of Ethiopia and King of Albania. Albania followed Italy into war with Britain and France on June 10, 1940. Albania served as the base for the Italian invasion of Greece in 1941. Albanian troops participated in the Greek campaign, and Albanian volunteers later served in the SS Skanderberg Division. Albania declared war on the United States in 1941.

Belarusian Central Rada

Belgium

After the Germans occupied Belgium in 1940, the Dutch-speaking Flemish found themselves favoured by the Germans over the French-speaking Walloons. After the invasion of USSR, Flemish volunteers were permitted to enlist in the Waffen SS while the Walloons would initially only be accepted by the German Army.

Denmark

Ethiopia

Lokot Republic

This territory of one little anti-Soviet Russian pro-Axis local administration under Axis direct control, lead at first by Konstantin Voskoboinik and later succeeded by Bronislaw Kaminski, himself also commander of native anti-communist forces of Russian National Liberation Army or RONA. The idea of liberation from the Bolsheviks found some support in German-occupied areas, and this state is one example of collaboration between natives and Axis forces. Another Russian anti-communist leader with similar thinking was Andrey Vlasov and his local anti-Stalinist pro-Axis force of Russian Liberation Army (ROA).

The Republic's life came to an end in 1943, soon after the war on the Eastern Front changed course at the Battle of Stalingrad.

Luxembourg

Manchukuo (Manchuria)

Manchukuo, meaning Manchuria, was a puppet state set up by Japan on February 18, 1932. The country's independence was not recognized by the League of Nations causing Japan to withdraw from the League. Italy, Germany and the Japanese-puppet government of China under Wang Jingwei were the only major governments to recognize the Japanese backed state. The following states later recognized the existence of this nation: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Ba Maw Burmese Nation, Thailand, the Indian government of Subhas Chandra Bose, and the Vatican. Manchuria met its dissolution in 1945 following Japan's defeat ending World War II.

Mengjiang

Mengjiang (Mengchiang) was a client state organized by Japan in Northern China on February 18 1936. The country's independence was merely theoretical, since principal political power remained firmly with "local" Japanese establishment. The local leader under the Japanese administration was the Mongol Prince Demchugdongrub.

The Japanese Army's ostensible purpose there was an eventual invasion of Soviet Siberia, during which it would advance the frontiers of Menchiang to Soviet Outer Mongolia. This was an attempt to exploit the Pan-Mongol nationalist spirit and the promise of a unified great Mongol nation.

Mengjiang vanished in 1945 following Japan's defeat ending World War II and the invasion of Soviet and Red Mongol Armies.

Nanjing puppet state

Provisional Government of Free India

Provisional Government of Free India

The Provisional Government of Free India was a shadow government led by Subhas Chandra Bose. It operated only in those parts of India which came under Japanese control. Bose was an Indian nationalist who did not believe in Gandhi's peaceful methods for achieving independence. Several key factors were vital in Bose's rise to power. The first was that even though India was a colony its army was largely autonomous. The second factor was that with Britain at war with Germany, an uprising could not be put down as easily as in years prior. The third and most important factor was the advance of the Japanese Empire through Asia. The Japanese Empire had earlier established Manchukuo (Manchuria) as independent in 1932 and later Indonesia and Vietnam independent without the approval of the latter two's European colonial masters.

Bose led several units in mutiny against the British government and had come into alliance with the invading Japanese Empire to India's east. Bose and A.M.Sahay, another local leader, received ideological support from Mitsuru Toyama, chief of the Black Dragon Society along with Japanese Army advisers. Other Indian thinkers in favour of the Axis cause were Asit Krishna Mukherji, a friend of Bose and husband of Savitri Devi Mukherji, one of the women thinkers in support of the German cause, and the Pandit Rajwade of Poona. Bose was helped by Rash Behari Bose, founder of the Indian Independence League in Japan. Bose declared India's independence on October 21 1943.

With its provisional capital at Port Blair on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands after they fell to the Japanese, the state would last two more years until August 18 1945 when it officially became defunct. In its existence it would receive recognition from nine governments: Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, Italy, Independent State of Croatia, the Wang Jingwei Government in Japan-occupied parts of China, Thailand, Burma (under Ba Maw), Manchukuo, and the Philippines under de facto (and later de jure) president José Laurel.

Reichskommissariats of Ostland and Ukraine

The Axis military administration of Reichskommissariat Ostland and Reichskommissariat Ukraine managed to control the politics of some native parties. They permitted some aspects of the native cultures to survive in order to curry favor with the local citizenry. In the Ukraine, some local nationalists requested nominal military independence or autonomy from the Axis military administration. Inclusive military tactics suggested that some native military volunteers did fight beside Axis forces in occupied territories.

In sharp contrast, the Axis Civil Administration assigned at Schleswig-Holstein, Gauleiter Heinrich Lohse (for Ostland), and East Prussia, Gauleiter, Erich Koch (for Ukraine) was very harsh, punctuated with massive exploitation of natural resources, deportation of local workers, and deplorable conditions for Jews during the period of their control. Alfred Rosenberg, previously at commenced of Axis Eastern Front campaign, suggests the future administrative organization of the USSR to conquest lands in next Reichskommissariats: Ostland (Baltic States),Ukraine,Kaukasus (Caucasia lands) and Moskau (Moscow and the other Russian and European areas surrounding.)

These territories extended from the European frontier to the Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan line. Mentioned proposes stay in line with "Lebensraumpolitik" and "Lebensraum im Osten" (the creation of more living space for Germans in the east) geopolitical strategies for future German east provinces expansion in benefits of "Aryan" generations in next centuries.

These military and civil administrative policies in territories previously mentioned and respectives geopolitical and expansionist ambitious plans if maintaining until when Axis military situation turning in Stalingrad and Kursk during 1943-1944.

Vichy France

Vichy France

Marshal Henri Philippe Pétain was named Chief of State of France after its surrender on June 22 1940. Under the terms of the armistice, Germany occupied approximately two thirds of France, including Paris. Petain established his seat of government at the resort town of Vichy in the unoccupied zone.

The Allies feared that the French fleet would fall into German hands and launched several attacks, including one attack leading to the destruction of the French Fleet at Mers-el-Kebir on July 3 1940. The Vichy regime broke relations with Britain after the attack and considered declaring war.

The Vichy government maintained control of much of the French colonial empire and continued to be recognized as a lawful government of France by the United States until 1942. It was opposed by the Free French headquartered in London under the command of Charles de Gaulle.

Allied forces (including Free French forces) also attacked Vichy forces in West Africa in 1940, Syria and Lebanon in 1941 and the Madagascar in 1942. The Vichy state signed the Anti-Comintern Pact and sent French volunteers to fight the Soviet Union. Vichy controlled colonies were often used as bases for Axis attacks. French Jews under Vichy government were transferred to the Nazis.

Japan occupied French Indochina, which became the starting point for the Japanese invasions of Thailand, Malaya and Borneo.

German troops occupied southern France and the Vichy colony of Tunisia in 1943, after Allied forces attacked Vichy troops there.

Russo-Japanese client state in Soviet Far East

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The reasoning behind such expansionist planning was threefold; firstly to establish self-acclaimed Japanese order in Siberia, secondly to take revenge on the Soviets for the 'chaos' caused after the German capitulation on the Eastern front, and thirdly to prevent American aid to the demoralised Soviet government. At the same time, these areas could serve as a "springboard" for future anti-Soviet operations in Siberian lands, along the stretches of Outer Mongolia. Axis commanders, considering Red Army division strength in the Far East, remarked at how "easy prey" the Soviets stood under these conditions, and a total defeat was forecast for December 1941.

These plans, originally masterminded during the 1929-1939 Russo-Japanese conflicts, were later reviewed during Operation Barbarossa. The extensive numbers of Axis forces present in the Soviet Union in July 1941 signalled to Japanese commanders that the time was right to commence operations in the Far East. They were known as the "KANTOKUEN Plan" or "Operation Othsu". This project was halted definitively with the defeat at Stalingrad of Axis forces in 1943.

Summary

See also these articles: Native pro-Axis leaders, governments and Axis direct control of occupied countries; Axis plans for expansion and attacks and; Expansion operations and planning of the Axis Powers.

Secondary sources

• Gerhard L. Weinberg. A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II.(NY: Cambridge University Press, 2nd edition, 2005) is the best scholarly overview.
• I. C. B. Dear and M. R. D. Foot, eds. The Oxford Companion to World War II. (2001) is the best reference book, with encyclopedic coverage of all military, political and economic topics.

See also

• World War II
• Allies of World War II
• All Participants in World War II
• Military equipment of Axis Power forces in Balkans and Russian Front

External links

• [Axis History Factbook]

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