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Battle of Khaybar

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The Battle of Khaybar was fought in the year 629 between Muhammad and his followers against the Jews living in Khaybar, an oasis located 150 kilometers (95 miles) from Medina in the area of Hejaz of the western part of the Arabian peninsula in what is nowadays Saudi Arabia. Contemporary scholars believe that Muhammad moved to attack Khaybar in order to raise his prestige among his followers, as well as to capture booty to sustain subsequent conquests. The battle ended with Muhammad's victory, which allowed him to gain sufficient money, weapons, and support from local tribes to capture Mecca just 18 months after Khaybar.Stillman (1979), p. 19

The defeated Jews were reduced to serfdom. They surrendered on condition of paying tribute to Muhammad and giving up all their land to Muslims. Some scholars hold that this agreement did not cover the Banu Nadir tribe, which had sought refuge in Khaybar after their expulsion from Medina, and that the Muslims killed all the men of Banu Nadir, sparing only the lives of the Khaybarian Jews.Stillman (1979), pp. 14, 18 But this issue is contentious. Jews continued to live in the oasis for several more years until they were finally expelled by caliph Umar. The imposition of tribute upon the conquered Jews served as a precedent for provisions in the Islamic law requiring the exaction of tribute known as jizya from dhimmis, i.e. non-Muslims under Muslim rule, and confiscation of land belonging to non-Muslims into the collective property of the Muslim community.

Contents

Background

Khaybar in the 7th century

In the 7th century, Khaybar was inhabited by the Jews, who pioneered the cultivation of the oasis and made their living growing date palm trees, as well as through commerce and craftsmanship, accumulating considerable wealth. Some objects found by the Muslims in a redoubt at Khaybar — a siege-engine, 20 bales of Yemenite cloth, and 500 cloaks — point out to an intense trade carried out by the Jews. While in the past some scholars attempted to explain the presence of a siege-engine, suggesting that it was used for settling quarrels among the families of the community, nowadays the common opinion among academics is that it was stored in a depôt for future sale, in the same way that swords, lances, shields, and other weaponry had been sold by the Jews to Arabs. Equally, the cloth and the cloaks must have been intended for sale, as it is not conceivable that such a quantity of luxury goods was kept for the exclusive use of the Jews. Seen in this light, Muhammad's attacks against the Jews, first in Medina and then in Khaybar, have economic roots similar to those which have brought about persecutions and pogroms in other countries in the course of history. 
The oasis was divided into three regions: al-Natat, al-Shikk, and al-Katiba, probably separated by natural diversions, such as the desert, lava drifts, and swamps. Each of these regions contained several fortresses or redoubts containing homes, storehouses and stables. Each fortress was occupied by a separate family and surrounded by cultivated fields and palm-groves. In order to improve their defensive capabilities, the fortresses were raised up on hills or basalt rocks.



Muhammad and the Jews of Medina

Over several years after his arrival in Medina, Muhammad killed or expelled all Jews from Medina. In 625, after the defeat in the Battle of Uhud at the hands of the Meccan army, Muhammad expelled from Medina the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir, who found refuge in Khaybar. In 627, after the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad and his followers killed all the men of Banu Qurayza, the only Jewish tribe remaining in Medina at that time, and enslaved their women and children.Stillman (1979), pp. 14–16



Muhammad's plans for attack

Muhammad’s reasoning behind his decision to attack Khaybar was the necessity to raise his authority among his followers, which had been under threat since the Treaty of Hudaybiyya. The conquest of Khaybar would enable him to satisfy with ample booty his companions who, having hoped to capture Mecca, were disappointed and discontented at the treaty with the Meccans. In addition, the Hudaybiyya agreement gave him the assurance of not being attacked by the Meccans during the expedition.Stillman (1979), p. 18


In his preparations for the attack, Muhammad took steps to eliminate some of the leaders of the Jews of Khaybar. His henchmen stole into Khaybar at night and assassinated Abu al-Rafi ibn Abi al-Huqayq, one of the Khaybar chieftains. Seeing the willingness of the Jews to negotiate with him, Muhammad sent envoys to Khaybar inviting Usayr ibn Zarim, the war chief of Banu Nadir, to come to Medina for talks. Unarmed, Umayr and thirty his companions set off to Medina with Muhammad's emissaries. On the way, the Muslims attacked the defenseless Jewish delegation, killing all but one of them, who managed to escape.Stillman (1979), p. 17



Jewish defensive preparations

The expulsion of Banu Nadir from Median led the Jews of Khaybar to realize the danger they were in. Huyayy ibn Akhtab, the chief of Banu Nadir, went with his son to join Meccans and Bedouins besieging Medina during the Battle of the Trench. After the siege of Medina proved unsuccessful, both Huyayy ibn Akhtab and his son defended Banu Qurayza, who were besieged by Muhammad and his followers, and shared the fate of the men of Banu Qurayza who were killed by the Muslims after the surrender. 


The war with Muhammad seemed imminent after the Muslims massacred the Jewish delegation sent to negotiate with Muhammad. The Jews of Khaybar entered into an alliance with the Jews of Fadak oasis, as well as with Bedouins of Ghatafan tribe. However, the lack of central authority at Khaybar prevented any further defensive preparations, and quarrels between different families left the Jews disorganized.



Course of the battle

Muhammad and his followers marched on Khaybar in May 629. According to different sources, the strength of his army varies from 1,400 to 1,800 men and between 100 and 200 horses. Thanks to the speed and secrecy of the march, the Muslims caught the Jews by surprise; the Jews realized they were under attack only when they went out to work in the fields. As a result, the Jews failed to mount centrally organized defense, and each family was left to defend its own fortified redoubt. In addition, Muhammad bribed the Bedouin allies of the Jews and prevented any further assistance from coming to Khaybar. 


Knowing the fate of Banu Qurayza, the Jews of Khaybar put up fierce resistance, and Muslims were forced to take fortresses one by one. The Jews, after a rather bloody skirmish in front of one of the fortresses, avoided combat in the open country, and Muhammad had to resort to besieging and storming the fortresses, hoping that the capitulation of the defenders should become inevitable through lack of water and food. However, the besieged Jews managed to organize, under the cover of darkness, a transfer of people and treasures from one fortress to another depending on the situation to make their resistance more effective. 


The traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad report that in one of the fortresses, first Abu Bakr, then Umar, took up the standard in the hope of breaking down their resistance, by putting themselves at the head of the attacks, but both failed. Muhammad then called to his standard-bearer AliJafri, S.H.M. The Origins and Early Development of Shi'a Islam.  Longman;1979 ISBN 0582780802 , citing multiple sources., who killed a Jewish chieftain with a sword-stroke, which split in two the helmet, the head and the body of the victim. Having lost his shield, Ali lifted one of the doors of the fortress from its hinges and defended himself with it, then used it to make a bridge whereby the attackers gained access to the redoubt. The door was so heavy that later eight men had to put it back in place. This incident (greatly exaggerated in the opinion of academic historians) became one of the reasons why Muslims, especially Shi'ites, view Ali as the prototype of heroes.  


Although the Jews were unprepared for an extended siege, neither were the Muslims, who also suffered from a lack of provisions. On one occasion, Muslim warriors killed and cooked a score of donkeys, which escaped from a farm. The incident led Muhammad to forbid to Muslims the meat of horses, mules, and donkeys, unless consumption was forced by necessity. Muhammad ordered the felling of 400 palms around one fortress to force its defenders to capitulate. Finally, the Jews surrendered when after a month and a half of the siege, all but two fortresses were captured by the Muslims.



Aftermath


Terms of surrender

The Jews were able to negotiate an agreement under which they were to remain in the oasis, cultivating their land. However, from now on they were required to hand over one-half of the produce to the Muslims. The land itself became the collective property of Muslims, which effectively reduced the Jews of Khaybar to the status of serfs. In addition, Muslims had the right to evict the Jews at any time, although modern historians believe that the latter clause was an ex-post justification for the subsequent expulsion of Jews from Khaybar. The agreement with the Jews of Khaybar served as an important precedent for Islamic Law in determining the status of dhimmis, i.e. non-Muslims who fell under Muslim rule.Stillman (1979), pp. 18–19 



Muhammad's marriage

Among the Jewish women there was one who was chosen by Muhammad as wife. It was Safiyya bint Huyayy, daughter of the killed Banu Nadir chief Huyayy ibn Akhtab and widow of Kinana ibn al-Rabi, the treasurer of Banu Nadir, whom Muhammad's followers first tortured, demanding to reveal the location of the hidden treasures of his tribe, and then killed.Ibn Hisham. Al-Sira al-Nabawiyya (The Life of The Prophet). English translation in Stillman (1979), pp. 145–146



Poisoning of Muhammad

Muslim biographers of Muhammad tell a story that a Jewish woman of Banu Nadir tribe attempted to poison Muhammad to avenge her slain relatives. She poisoned a piece of lamb that she cooked for Muhammad and his companion, putting especially much poison into the shoulder — Muhammad's favorite part of lamb. The attempt on Muhammad's life failed because he reportedly spit out the meat, feeling that it was poisoned, while his companion ate the meat and died. Muhammad's companions then reported that on his deathbed Muhammad said that his illness was the result of that poison.Ibn Hisham. Al-Sira al-Nabawiyya (The Life of The Prophet). English translation in Stillman (1979), pp. 148–149



Strengthening of Muhammad

The victory in Khaybar greatly raised the status of Muhammad among his followers and, local Bedouin tribes, who, seeing his power, swore allegiance to Muhammad and embraced Islam. The captured booty and weapons strengthened his army, and he captured Mecca just 18 months after Khaybar.



Expulsion of the Jews from Khaybar

The Jews were expelled from Khaybar in reign of caliph Umar (634-644). During his caliphate, the Muslims conquered vast territories in the Middle East, bringing to the Arabia large numbers of slaves, and the Jewish labor force was no longer necessary. The Jews of Khaybar settled in many areas throughout the Middle East, and they maintained a distinctive identity until the 12th century.



Jews of Khaybar in Arabic folklore

In later times, the Jews of Khaybar became popular figures in Arabic folklore. One of the stories went that on the road to Mecca many Jewish tent-dwellers lived in the desert in the neighborhood of many Arabs who robbed everybody passing by. The Jews and the Arabs then had an equal share in the booty. However, when a Jew came across, they offered him gifts and brought him to a safe place. Legends such as this one persisted well into the modern times.Stillman (1979), p. 290



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