Battle of Lepanto (1571)
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The naval Battle of Lepanto took place on 7 October 1571 when a galley fleet of the Holy League, a sometimes-flimsy coalition of the Papacy (under Pope Pius V), Spain, Venice, Genoa, Savoy, the Knights of Malta and others, defeated a force of Ottoman galleys. The 5-hour battle was fought at the northern edge of the Gulf of Patras, off western Greece, where the Ottoman forces sailing westwards from their naval station in Lepanto met the Holy League forces, which had come from Messina, in the morning of Sunday 7 OctoberLuggis, Telemachus: "Sunday, 7 October 1571." pp. 19-23 Epsilon Istorica, Eleftherotypia, 9 November 2000. See also Chasiotis, Ioannis "The signing of 'Sacra Liga Antiturca' and the naval battle of Lepanto (7 October 1571)", Istoria tou Ellinikou Ethnous. Ekdotiki Athinon, vol. 10, Athens, 1974. It was the final major naval battle in world history solely between rowing vessels.
Forces
(See order of battle for detailed list of each ship or commander involved in the battle)The Holy League's fleet consisted of 206 galleys and 6 galleasses, and was ably-commanded by Don John (or Don Juan) of Austria, the illegitimate son of Emperor Charles V. Vessels had been contributed by the various Christian factions who were supporting the Habsburgs: 105 galleys and 6 galleasses from Venice, 80 galleys from Spain, 12 from the Papal States, which were hired Tuscan vessels, 3 from Genoa, 3 from Malta, 3 from Savoy and several privately-owned galleys, most or all of whom viewed the Turkish navy as their maritime naval trade rival for the profitable Mediterranean Sea trade routes. The various Christian squadrons met Veniero's main squadron in July and August 1571 at Messina, Sicily, waiting for Don John, who arrived on 23 August. The galleasses were converted merchant galleys from Venice. They joined the gathering fleet on 7 July, 1571.
This fleet of the Christian alliance was manned by 12,920 sailors and 43,000 rowers. In addition, it carried almost 28,000 fighting troops: 10,000 Spanish regular infantry of excellent quality, 7,000 German and 6,000 Italian mercenary contingents from the various Habsburg dominions, under Spanish pay, and 5,000 others. Volunteers were also generously represented.
Ali Pasha (Ali Paşa), supported by the buccaneers Chulouk Bey of Alexandria and Uluj Ali (Uluch Ali) was at the head of approximately 220-230 galleys, 50-60 galliots, and some smaller vessels belonging to the Ottomans and their vassals. The Turks enjoyed skilled and experienced crews, but were somewhat deficient in soldiers, having only 25,000 soldiers, including 2,500 Janissaries.
This deficiency in soldiers, especially of Jannissary quality, who were the only warriors at that time the equal of the Spanish Infantry, cost the Ottomans dearly. Some naval historians argue that this lack -- especially in that it led to the capture and execution of Ali Pasha, with his head displayed prominently during the battle -- was one of the decisive factors in the Ottoman defeat at Lepanto. Other authorities consider that the significant differences between the two sides amounted primarily to the larger, longer-ranged broadside cannon on the Venetian galleases, the thick armour of the Spanish infantry, and the large numbers of Muslim archers. Certainly the few galleases had an influence out of proportion to their numbers, and several prominent Christians were lost to arrows.
One of the better-known participants in the battle was Spanish author Miguel de Cervantes, who was wounded in the battle and effectively lost the use of his left hand. He was later taken hostage by the Turks and spent five years in captivity as a prisoner of war. This episode of his life is believed to be referenced in his masterpiece, Don Quixote (First Part, Chapters XXXIX-XLI).
Deployment
The Christian fleet formed up in 4 divisions in a North-South line. At the northern end, closest to the coast, was the Left Division of 53 galleys, mainly Venetian; led by Agustino Barbarigo, with Marco Querini and Antonio da Canale in support. The Centre Division consisted of 62 galleys under Don Juan himself in his Real, along with Sebastian Veniero and Marcantonio Colonna. The Right Division to the south, consisted of another 53 galleys under the Genoese Giovanni Andrea Doria. Two galleasses, which had side-mounted cannon, were positioned in front of each main division, for the purpose, according to Cervantes (who served on one of these galleasses, the Marquesa, during the battle), of preventing the Turks from sneaking in small boats and sapping, sabotaging or boarding the Habsburg vessels. A further Reserve Division was stationed behind (that is, to the west of) the main fleet, to lend support wherever it might be needed. This reserve division consisted of 38 galleys - 30 behind the Centre Division commanded by Alvaro de Bazán, and 4 behind each wing. A scouting group was formed, from 2 Right and 6 Reserve galleys. As the Christian fleet was slowly turning around Point Scropha, Doria's Right Division at the off-shore side, was delayed at the start of the battle, and the Right's galleasses did not get into position.The Turkish fleet consisted of 54 galleys and 2 galliots in its Right, or northern division, under Chulouk Bey; 61 galleys and 32 galliots in the Centre under Ali Pasha in the Sultana, and about 63 galleys and 30 galliots in the South off-shore; under Uluj Ali. A small reserve existed of 8 galleys, 22 galliots and 64 fustas, behind the Centre body. Ali Pasha is supposed to have told his Christian galley-slaves: "If I win the battle, I promise you your liberty. If the day is yours, then God has given it to you."
The battle
The Left and Centre galleasses had been towed half a mile ahead of the Christian line, and were able to sink 2 Turkish galleys, and damage some more, before the Turkish fleet left them behind. Their attacks also disrupted the Ottoman formations. As the battle started, Doria found that Uluj Ali's galleys extended further to the south than his own, and so headed south to avoid being out-flanked. This meant he was even later coming into action. He ended up being outmanœuvered by Ali, who turned back and attacked the southern end of the Centre Division, taking advantage of the big gap that Doria had left.
In the north, Chulouk Bey had managed to get between the shore and the Christian North Division, with six galleys in an outflanking move, and initially the Christian fleet suffered. Barbarigo was killed by an arrow, but the Venetians, turning to face the threat, held their line. The return of a galleass saved the Christian North Division. The Christian Centre also held the line with the help of the Reserve, after taking a great deal of damage, and caused great damage to the Muslim Centre. In the south, off-shore side, Doria was engaged in a melee with Uluj Ali's ships, taking the worse part. Meanwhile Uluj Ali himself commanded 16 galleys in a fast attack on the Christian Centre, taking 6 galleys - amongst them the Maltese Capitana, killing everyone on board, including its commander, Giustiniani, Prior of the Order of St. John, felled by five arrows. The arrival of Alvaro de Bazán with the reserve was able to turn the battle, both in the Centre and in Doria's South Wing. Uluj Ali was forced to flee with 16 galleys and 24 galliots, abandoning all but one of his captures. During the course of the battle, the Ottoman Commander's ship was boarded and the Spanish tercios from 3 galleys and the Turkish janissaries from 7 galleys fought on the deck of the Sultana. Twice the Spanish were repelled with great loss, but at the third attempt, with reinforcements from Alvaro de Bazán's galley, they prevailed. Müezzenzade Ali Pasha was killed and beheaded, against the wishes of Don Juan. However, when his head was displayed on a pike from the Spanish flagship, it contributed greatly to the destruction of Turkish morale. The battle concluded around 4 pm.
The Turkish fleet suffered the loss of about 180 galleys and 60 galliots. However, only 117 galleys and 13 galliots were in good enough condition for the Christians to keep. On the Christian side 15 galleys were destroyed and 30 damaged so seriously that they had to be scuttled. One Venetian galley was the only one kept by the Turks. All others were abandoned by them and recaptured.
The Holy League had suffered around 9,000 casualties but freed twice as many Christian prisoners. Turkish casualties were around 30,000. The Holy League credited the victory to the Virgin Mary, whose intercession with God they had implored for victory through the use of the Rosary. Pius V instituted a new Catholic feast day of Our Lady of Victory to commemorate the battle, which is now celebrated by the Catholic Church as the feast of Our Lady of the Rosary. [link]
[This page] gives extensive details of tactics and galley designs used during this battle.
Aftermath
The engagement was a crushing defeat for the Ottomans: Never had the Ottoman Empire lost a naval battle to an enemy engaged in combat. Indeed, to all of Christendom, this marked the beginning of the downfall of "the Turk", the "Sempiternal Enemy of the Christian." Additionally, of the massive naval force, the Empire lost all but 30 of its ships. To this day, it is held by historians to be the most decisive naval battle occurring anywhere on the globe, in terms of size of the battle waged coupled with geopolitical ramifications, since the Battle of Actium of 31 BC.
Despite the massive Turkish defeat, European disunity prevented the allied forces from pressing their victory or achieving supremacy over the Ottomans at sea at this time. The Ottoman Empire immediately began a massive effort to rebuild its navy, and within 6 months was able to reassert Ottoman naval supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean. But because of the rapid rebuilding, many of the ships were made from unseaworthy materials and manned by inexperienced sailors. This was to have more important consequences in the long term than their sheer numbers.
The defeat at Lepanto did not prevent the Ottomans' from capturing the forts around Tunis. Ultimately, however, the Ottomans lost their control of the Mediterranean and its tributary seas. The Battle of Lepanto, following their earlier failure at the Great Siege of Malta in 1565, restricted Ottoman ambitions in the Mediterranean. Many lesser naval clashes would occur long after 1571.
Lepanto was the last major battle under oars. It broke the threat of Muslim dominance at sea. The Battle of Navarino (1827), the last major battle under sail, provided merely an embarrassing coda to any pretensions of thalassocracy.
Depictions in art
The immense import of Lepanto has led it to inspire many artists in various fields.
There are many pictorial representations of the battle, including two in the Doge's Palace in Venice: by Paolo Veronese (above) in the Sala del Collegio and by Andrea Vicentino on the walls of the Sala dello Scrutinio, which replaced Tintoretto's Victory of Lepanto, destroyed by fire in 1577. Titian's Allegory of the Battle of Lepanto, using the battle as a backgound, hangs in the Prado in Madrid. The picture at the top of this article is the work of an unknown artist.
The American abstract painter Cy Twombly refers with 12 big pictures ('Lepanto', 2001) to the battle, one of his main works.
The English author G. K. Chesterton wrote a poem [[s:Lepanto|Lepanto]], first published in 1911 and republished many times since. It provides a series of poetic visions of the major characters in the battle, particularly the leader of the Christian forces, Don Juan of Austria (John of Austria). It closes with verses linking Miguel de Cervantes, who fought in the battle, with the "lean and foolish knight" he would later immortalize in Don Quixote.
Playwright Howard Barker refers to the Battle of Lepanto in his play Scenes from an Execution, which premiered in 1986. In it, a fictional Venetian painter named Galactia, a character who bears much in common with the artist Artemisia Gentileschi, has been commissioned by the doge to paint a commemorative depiction of the battle. Her refusal to make the scene one which will inspire patriotism and pride in the Venetian people leads to conflict with state officials.
Notes
References
- R. C. Anderson. Naval Wars in the Levant 1559-1853 pps. 37-47 ISBN 0878397990.
- G. K. Chesterton, Lepanto with Explanatory Notes and Commentary, Dale Ahlquist, ed. (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2003). ISBN 1-58617-030-9.
- Victor Davis Hanson. Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise of Western Power. Anchor Books, 2001. Published in the UK as Why the West has Won. Faber and Faber, 2001. ISBN 0571216404. Includes a chapter about the battle of Lepanto.
- Harbottle's Dictionary of Battles, third revision by George Bruce, 1979
- Oliver Warner's Great Sea Battles has "Lepanto 1571" as its opening chapter. ISBN 0600016501.
- The New Cambridge Modern History, Volume I -- The Renaissance 1493-1520, edited by G.R. Potter, Cambridge University Press 1964
External links
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