Battle of Siffin
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The Battle of Siffin (May-July 657 CE) occurred during the Second Muslim Civil war, with the main engagement taking place from July 26 to July 28. It was fought between Ali ibn Abu Talib and Muawiyah I, on the banks of the Euphrates river. Ali and Muawiyah were fighting for the Caliphate, and the right to lead the growing Muslim empire. However, the battle was indecisive. To the Shia, Ali ibn Abu Talib was the first Imam. To Sunni, Ali ibn Abu Talib was the fourth Caliph, and Muawiyah the fifth. The events surrounding the battle are highly controversial between Sunni and Shia.
Background
There had long been tension within the Muslim empire between the aristocracy of Koreish and the wider Arab tribes, particularly the Bedouin. This tension came to a head in the reign of Uthman, the third Caliph, who was beseiged in his palace by the tribesmen, and then overthrown and murdered. These Bedouin were angry at Uthman's style of government, which they saw as similar to that of a traditional Sheikh; instead they wanted a more religious and less secular type of government, with power distributed more widely. While the tribesmen based this demand on religious arguments, it is not coincidental that this would have greatly increased their power.
In the wake of Uthman's murder, Ali ibn Abu Talib succeeded to the Caliphate, and was immediately faced by demands to bring the murderers of Uthman to justice. However, Ali did not think this was a practical solution. He is supposed to have said that "It were easier to bale out the floods of the Euphrates" than to punish all the vast number of people involved in Uthman's overthrow. Moreover, the Bedouin remained extremely powerful - they were in effective control of Mecca at the time - and Ali feared that trying to punish them immediately would result in unending civil war, and would potentially lead to the end of the Muslim empire. Rather, he said he was helpless for the time being; "Wait - and the Lord will guide us."
As a result, Ali was seen as siding with the tribesmen against the aristocracy. Indeed, this may well have been his aim. However, this also meant that many saw him as condoning the overthrow and murder of Uthman. Such an accusation was extremely destabilising to the legitimacy of Ali's rule. So Ali was quickly challenged by a rebellion from Aisha, a widow of the prophet Mohammed, and her allies Talha and Zubayr ibn al-Awwam. Ali successfully defeated this rebellion at the Battle of the Camel, but a far more serious threat had now appeared.
The governor of Syria was Muawiyah, a skilled administrator and politician, who had inspired great personal loyalty in the region. As a kinsman of the murdered Uthman, he bore the duty of revenge, and was angered by Ali's reluctance to bring the murderers of Uthman to justice. As a result, Muawiyah stated that Ali ibn Abu Talib was implcated in the murder of Uthman, denounced him as Caliph, and placed his province in open revolt. The bloodied shirt of Uthman and the chopped-off fingers of his wife Naila were displayed in the mosque in Damascus, and Muawiyah succeeded in creating great ill feeling against Ali in Syria.
Most Shia believe that Muawiyah's true motivation all along was to gain the Caliphate, and that the murder of his kinsman was merely an excuse to rebel. Muawiyah is hence seen by many Shia as hypocritical, power-hungry and treacherous. However, not only did Ali not punish Uthman's murderers, but he recruited a large number of Uthman's beseigers into his army prior to the Battle of the Camel, and appointed Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr, a regicide, to govern Egypt. Hence the Sunni reply is that if Muawiyah was merely looking for an excuse to rebel, Ali certainly gave him no shortage of excuses. Ali also had a reputation for constant temporising and equivocation. Hence, they say, Ali ibn Abu Talib was far from blameless in this matter. Regardless, the true motivation of the participants will never be known for sure.
Start of hostilities
After the Battle of the Camel was over, Ali returned from Basra to Kufa in Rajab of 36 (January 657). He decided to transfer the capital of his government to Kufa from Medina because it was more centrally placed in the Muslim Empire, and he could halt Muawiyah’s progress into Iraq. It was vitally important for Ali that he subdue the province of Syria, and thereby legitimise his position as ruler of the Muslim empire.
Before marching towards Syria, Ali ibn Abu Talib tried to settle matters peacefully by sending Jarir, chief of Banu Bajila and the governor of Hamdan, to Syria as an envoy. He did this because Jarir was known to be a friend of Muawiyah, and so could mediate between the two sides. However, it is said that Jarir became so engrossed in the entertainment that Muawiyah put his way, that he wasted his time in Syria. Jarir returned three months later with the message that Muawiyah would submit to Ali just as soon as the murderers of Uthman were brought to justice. This was of course not acceptable to Ali. Malik ibn Ashter accused Jarir of having wasted time in effeminate pleasures with Muawiyah, who purposely kept him long enough to mature his plans of hostilities. Jarir then left Kufa and joined Muawiyah in Syria.
Uthman's blood-stained shirt was still hanging in the Damascus mosque, and the Syrian soldiers had sworn that they would not wash or sleep a night at home, until the murderers of Uthman were brought to justice. Moreover, they also swore to bring to justice all those who sheltered the murderers - by saying this they were making a great insult against Ali ibn Abu Talib. Seeing that war was inevitable, Ali gathered his forces, and after at first planning to invade Syria from the North, he marched through the Mesopotamian desert. Arriving at Riqqa, on the banks of the Euphrates, the Syrian vanguard was sighted, but it withdrew without engagement. As the people of Riqqa were hostile to Ali, the army had great difficulty crossing the river, and the people did not co-operate until Malik ibn Ashter threatened them with death. Finally, however, the army managed to cross the river, by means of a bridge of boats. Ali's army then marched along the right bank of the river, until they came across the Syrian outpost of Sur al-Rum, where there was a brief skirmish, but this did not slow Ali's advance. So in the month of Zilhaj of 36 (May 657), the army of Ali ibn Abu Talib came into sight of Muawiyah’s main forces, which were encamped on the river plain at Siffin.
The fight for the river
Muawiyah had stationed his general, Amr ibn al-Aas, with 10,000 men on the river to stop the access to water for Ali ibn Abu Talib's army. Ali ibn Abu Talib sent Sasaa ibn Sauhan al-Abdi to tell Muawiyah that this action was not necessary because the people to whom he was refusing water were also Muslims. He further claimed that if the situation had been reversed, the river would have been open to both armies. However, Muawiyah sent back a message that the murderers of Uthman had not allowed him any water when they had laid siege to his palace, and Muawiyah was avenging that action. Whether or not the participants were truthful in their claims, this situation meant that Muawiyah had the strategic upper hand, as Ali's army could not long stay in the area without access to water. Ali had no choice but to attack.
Ali ibn Abu Talib gave command of his army to the general Malik ibn Ashter, who led the attack. After heavy fighting, Amr's forces were dislodged from its banks. Having control of the river, Ali ibn Abu Talib kept to his word and allowed unlimited access to Muawiyah’s side. Moreover, Ali did not immediately press forwards with his attack. Instead, he sent out Bashir ibn Amr, Sa'id ibn Qais and Shabus ibn Rabi as ambassadors to negotiate peace. However, Muawiyah was unwilling to meet with this delegation, and so a new delegation was sent, under Adi ibn Hatim, Yazid bin Qais, Ziyad ibn Hufza and Shabis ibn Rad. However, negotiations once again proved fruitless. Muawiyah repeated his demands that the murderers of Uthman be brought to justice, but Ali's ambassadors alleged that Muawiyah was simply intent on taking the Caliphate for himself. This enraged Muawiyah. "Begone, ye lying scoundrels!" he is supposed to have cried; "the sword shall decide between us." Despite this, Ali remained keen to try and find a negotiated peace, and the two armies remained encamped facing each other for 110 days, as Ali continued to send deputations to negotiate peace.
However, even as the peace negotiations were taking place, there were at least 90 skirmishes between tribal columns in the two armies. There was no general battle between the two armies, however, but rather hostilities did not go beyond this sporadic fighting. Nevertheless, many lives were lost on both sides, and the peace negotiations remained deadlocked. Ali's army was mostly made up of Bedouin tribesmen, most of whom were sympathetic to the deposition of Uthman. It seems that under their influence, Ali's position began to harden. When Muawiyah's ambassadors asked Ali whether he approved of Uthman's murder, Ali is said to have replied "I will not say that he was wrongly attacked, nor will I say that the attack was justified." This equivocation simply served to enrage Muawiyah's army.
The main engagement
Ali made one final demand for Muawiyah's army to submit to him as Caliph, but they refused. As a result, on 8th Safar 36 (26 July, 657) Ali gave the order for a full attack, and the major part of the Battle of Siffin began. The battle lasted all day, and into the night. The fighting lulled a little in the darkness, but started again even more fiercely the following day. Despite his age (he was now 58) Ali attacked personally with his Medinan troops in the centre, with his troops from Basra and Kufa on the flanks. Muawiyah watched the battle from a pavilion on the field, surrounded by his Personal Guard. Amr led Muawiyah's cavalry against the Kufa flank with great success, and almost broke through to kill Ali. However, Ali inspired his troops with his bravery, and the attack was stalled. On the other flank, Ashter and 300 qari led the assault on Muawiyah's troops, almost forcing Muawiyah to flee the battlefield, but the bravery of his bodyguards and Amr saved his situation.
The fighting continued fiercely onto a third day, with heavy casualties, including Hashim ibn Utba and Ammar ibn Yasir, both Companions of the Prophet. Both sides had by now ran out of ammunition for their quivers and so the battle was fought hand-to-hand. Although Muawiyah's forces were numerically superior, Ali's forces were greatly inspired by Ashter, and gave no ground. In the surviving accounts of the battle, each writer praises his own tribe and condemns the others; but all agree on the bravery of Ashter. Both Ali and Muawiyah were unhappy at the heavy losses both sides were taking, but Muawiyah was particularly dejected, believing that the battle would eventually be lost. It was suggested that the battle be stopped and the two leaders fight in single combat, but Muawiyah was unwilling to do this. Both men were old but Ali retained more vigour than Muawiyah and was almost certain to win such a duel. As a result, looking for a way to stop the battle, Muawiyah took the advice of his general Amr al-Aas, and told his bodyguards to put leaves of the Qu'ran on their lances, and shout "The law of the Lord! That shall decide between us!" They did not necessarily think that all of Ali's army would accept an arbitration, but they were sure that some of them would favour this, and so at the least this would cause dissension in Ali's army.
However, the plan worked better than Muawiyah and Amr had hoped, because Ali's entire army quickly began chanting along with Muawiyah's men. Ali tried to persuade his soldiers that this was a trick, and that Muawiyah was simply afraid of defeat, but they did not listen. In fact, many of the best of Ali's soldiers were the keenest to make an arbitration. Ali and Ashter spent a long time arguing against the soldiers, but they could not change their minds and in fact the soldiers became impatient and attacked Ashter with whips. They even threatened to send Ali to Muawiyah as a prisoner if he did not accept the arbitration. So, with his army in mutiny against him, Ali had no choice but to accept the arbitration. So not only had Muawiyah managed to gain an arbitration, he had greatly weakened Ali's position with his own supporters.
Conclusion
Ali ibn Abu Talib wanted his relation Abdullah ibn Abbas or Malik ibn Ashter to represent him, but his men insisted that Abu Musa Ash'ari be chosen instead. Abu Musa was of questionable loyalty to Ali, and had deserted him previously. However, Ali's men wanted him as the representative, because he, like them, was a Bedouin, and they thought he was truly desirous for peace. Ali's men did not want Abdullah or Ashter because they would advance Ali's claims too strongly and be unwilling to compromise - Abbas, because he would support Ali's claims as his kinsman, and Ashter, because he was a regicide, and so was implacably opposed to Muawiyah. Muawiyah appointed his general Amr al-Aas to represent him. As a result, Muawiyah's position in arbitration was much stronger from the beginning. This was a great personal humiliation for Ali, not only in that his men denied him the choice of his own representative, but because the peace treaty that Ali signed did not recognise him as Caliph, but merely placed Ali and Muawiyah as equal combatants in a war. Ali retired to Kufa, Muawiyah to Damascus.
Although Ali got the better of the actual fighting, and the end result of the battle was inconclusive, it was in fact Muawiyah who emerged from the battle in much the stronger position. Ali had failed to subdue Syria, and his supporters were now divided. Many of Ali's closest followers were disgusted by the peace treaty, including the loyal Ashter, who is supposed to have stated "I shall never acknowledge that this is my right hand, if it should touch such a document as this [peace treaty]." Meanwhile the Bedouin had been able to mutiny and dictate policy. Ali ibn Abu Talib had conducted himself with great dignity, but he had not shown the necessary strength to overcome Muawiyah and unite the Muslims under his leadership, which had been his goal in invading Syria.
Aftermath
On the march back to Kufa, Ali's army became sharply divided.Now that the battle was over, many of the soldiers - particularly the Bedouin - regretted agreeing to the arbitration, because they did not see it as proper under Islam. They said that the leadership of the Muslim world was not something for Ali to bargain over with Muawiyah, as two rival kings might - rather, their aim in overthrowing Uthman had been to establish a truly religious government. A group of 12,000 soldiers broke away from the main army, and instead went to the nearby village of Harura. After great efforts, Ali managed to pacify these soldiers and persuade them to rejoin his army, but it proved only temporary.For the next six months, Muawiyah ruled over Syria, Ali over the rest of the Muslim Empire. In Ramadan 37 (February 658), the umpires arrived at Dumat-al-Jondel, along with a huge number of interested spectators. The two umpires met alone in a specially elected pavilion. The preserved account is brief and uncertain, but it seems that Amr began by pressing Abu Musa to admit that Uthman was foully murdered, and that hence Muawiyah should succeed as his kinsman. Abu Musa rejected this, saying that succession to the Caliphate is not a matter of lineage but the vote of the Companions of the Prophet. Amr then went through all the possible candidates (apart from Ali and Muawiyah), and Abu Musa rejected each in turn. So Amr then asked Abu Musa what his solution was. Abu Musa replied that they should depose both Ali and Muawiyah, and allow the people to choose whoever they wish. Amr quickly agreed.
However, when it came time to announce this decision, Amr betrayed Abu Musa. First, Abu Musa stated his idea of deposing both men; then Amr is supposed to have said "You have heard the declaration of Abu Musa. He has deposed his leader [Ali] and I too depose him. But as for my leader, Muawiyah, I confirm him. He is the heir to Uthman, the avenger of his blood, and the best entitled to succeed as Caliph." This astonished the crowd, and Abu Musa, ashamed at being tricked in this way, retired to Mecca and spent the rest of his days in obscurity.
However, Ali remained recognised as Caliph and Muawiyah did not claim the title - but now Ali's position was weakened even more. It further estranged him from his supporters, and the 12,000 soldiers who had broken away became the nucleus of a new religious sect, the Kharijites (dissenters) who rejected all Caliphs, and constantly rebelled against Ali, enabling Muawiyah to take Egypt from Ali. Muawiyah and Ali continued their hostilities against each other, making their followers curse each other during prayers, but never again did they fight a major battle. For the rest of Ali's life, the Muslim Empire was divided between the two men, with Muawiyah ruling Syria and Egypt, and Ali ruling the rest. In 661, the Kharijites assassinated Ali, and the Muslim empire was reunited, with Muawiyah as the ruler, and calling himself the Caliph. However, the Shia believe that the Caliphate should have passed to one of Ali's sons, Hassan ibn Ali and Hussain ibn Ali. The Shia do not recognise Muawiyah as a legitimate Caliph, but regard him as a despicable figure. Sunni opinion on Muawiyah is more complicated, as he is recognised as a legitimate Caliph, but he is the first Caliph not described by the Sunnis as Rashidun ("Rightly Guided").
See Also
External links
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