Buddhism in Japan

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The Buddha in Kamakura (1252).

The history of Buddhism in Japan can be roughly divided into three periods, namely the Nara period (up to 784), the Heian period (794-1185) and the post-Kamakura period (1185 onwards). Each period saw the introduction of new doctrines and upheavals in existing schools.

In modern times, there are four main paths of Buddhism, to which all schools of Japanese Buddhism belong: the Amidist (Pure Land) schools, Nichiren Buddhism, and Zen Buddhism.

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Arrival along the Silk Road

The arrival of Buddhism in Japan is ultimately a consequence the first contacts between China and Central Asia which occurred with the opening of the Silk Road in the 2nd century BCE, following the travels of Zhang Qian between 138 and 126 BCE, which culminated with the official introduction of Buddhism in China in 67 CE. Historians generally agree that by the middle of the 1st century, the religion had penetrated to areas north of the Huai River. Buddhism then made its way to Korea, and finally to Japan around the 5th century CE.

Early Chinese accounts

In 467 CE, according to the Chinese historic treatise Liang Shu, five monks from Gandhara traveled to the country of Fusang (Chinese: 扶桑, Jp: Fusō: "The country of the extreme East" beyond the sea, probably eastern Japan), where they introduced Buddhism:

Fusang is located to the east of China, 20,000 li (1,500 kilometers) east of the state of Da Han (itself east of the state of Wa in modern Kyushu, Japan). (...) In former times, the people of Fusang knew nothing of the Buddhist religion, but in the second year of Da Ming of the Song dynasty (467 CE), five monks from Kipin (Kabul region of Gandhara) travelled by ship to Fusang. They propagated Buddhist doctrine, circulated scriptures and drawings, and advised the people to relinquish worldly attachments. As a results the customs of Fusang changed (In the original Ch: "扶桑在大漢國東二萬餘里,地在中國之東(...)其俗舊無佛法,宋大明二年,罽賓國嘗有比丘五人游行至其國,流通佛法,經像,教令出家,風俗遂改", Liang Shu, 7th century CE).

Nara Period

Tile with seated Buddha, Nara Prefecture, Asuka period, 7th century. Tokyo National Museum.

The introduction of Buddhism to Japan is securely dated to 552, when Baekje monks from the Korean peninsula came to Nara to introduce the eight doctrinal schools. Initial uptake of the new faith was slow, and Buddhism only started to spread some years later when Empress Suiko openly encouraged the acceptance of Buddhism among all Japanese people. In 607, in order to obtain copies of Sutras, an imperial envoy was dispatched to Sui dynasty China. As time progressed and the number of Buddhist clergy increased, the offices of Sojo (archbishop) and Sozu (bishop) were created. By 627 there were 46 Buddhist temples, 816 Buddhist priests, and 569 Buddhist nuns in Japan.

There were traditionally six schools of Buddhism in Nara Japan: Ritsu (Vinaya), Jojitsu (Satyasiddhi), Kusha (Abhidharma) Sanron (Madhyamika), Hosso (Yogacara), and Kegon (Hua-yen). However they were not exclusive schools, and temples were apt to have scholars versed in several of the schools. It has been suggested that they can best be thought of as 'study groups'.

Founded by Daoxuan (道宣, Jp. Dosen), China, c. 650 AD
First Introduction to Japan: Ganjin (鑑真), 753 AD. The Ritsu school specialized in the Vinaya (the monastic rules in the Tripitaka). They used the Dharmagupta version of the vinaya which is known in Japanese as Shibunritsu 四分律)

Jojitsu

The Satyasiddhi school is considered to be an offshoot of the Sautrantika school, one of the Nikaya schools of Indian Buddhism (see early Buddhist schools). They were distinguished by a rejection of the Abhidharma as not being the 'word of the Buddha'. The name means literally, "Ends with the Sutras," which refers to the traditional order of texts in the Tripitaka - vinaya, sutra, abhidharma.

Temple tiles from Nara, 7th century, Tokyo National Museum.

Introduced into Japan from China during the Nara period (710–784). The school takes its name from its authoritative text, the Abidatsuma-kusha-ron(Sanskrit:Abhidharma-kosa), by the 4th- or 5th-century Indian philosopher Vasubandhu. The Kusha school is considered to be an offshoot of the Indian Sarvastivada school.

Literally: Three-Discourse School; a Madhyamika school which developed in China based on two discourses by Nagarjuna and one by Aryadeva; this school was transmitted to Japan in the 7th century. (Madhyamika is one of the two most important Mahayana philosophies, and reemphasizes the original Buddhist teachings that phenomena are neither truly existent or absolutely non-existent, but are characterized by impermanence and insubstantially.

The Yogacara (瑜伽行派 Yugagyouha) schools are based on early Indian Buddhist thought by masters such as Vasubandhu, and are also known as "consciousness only" since they teach a form of idealism which posits that all phenomena are phenomena of the mind. The Hosso school was founded by Xuanzang (玄奘, Jp. Genjo), China, c. 630 AD, and introduced to Japan in 654 AD. The Discourse on the Theory of Consciousness-Only (Jo yuishikiron 成唯識論) is an important text for the Hosso school.

Also known by its Chinese name Huayen (華厳), the Kegon school was founded by Dushun (杜順, Jp. Dojun), China, c. 600 AD, and introduced to Japan by Bodhisena in 736 AD. The Avatamsaka Sutra (Kegonkyo 華厳経) is the central text for the Kegon school.

Heian Period

The Late Nara period saw the introduction of Esoteric Buddhism (密教, Jp. mikkyo) to Japan from China, by Kukai and Saicho, who founded the Shingon and Tendai schools. The later Heian period saw the formation of the first truly Japanese school of Buddhism, that of Nichiren.

Known as Tiantai (天台) in China, the Tendai school was founded by Zhiyi (智顗, Jp Chigi) in China, c. 550 AD. In 804 Saicho (最澄) traveled to China to study at the Tiantai teachings, at Mount Tiantai. However before his return he also studied, and was initiated into the practice of the Vajrayana - with emphasis on the Mahavairocana Sutra. The primary text of Tiantai is Lotus Sutra (Hokkekyo 法華経), but when Saicho established his school in Japan he incorporated the study and practice of Vajrayana as well.

Kukai traveled to China in 804 as part of the same expedition as Saicho. In the T'ang capital he studied esoteric Buddhism, Sanskrit and received initiation from Huikuo. On returning to Japan Kukai eventually managed to establish Shingon (真言) as a school in its own right. Kukai received two lineages of teaching - one based on the Mahavairochana Sutra (Dainichikyo 大日経), and the other based on the Vajrashekhara.

Kinkakuji, the Temple of the Golden Pavilion, located in Kyoto.

Kamakura to Modern Period

The Kamakura period saw the introduction of the two schools that had perhaps the greatest impact on the country: the Amidist Pure Land schools, promulgated by evagelists such as Genshin and articulated by monks such as Hōnen, which emphasize salvation through faith in Amitabha and remain the largest Buddhist sect in Japan (and throughout Asia); and the more philosophical Zen schools, which were equally rapidly adopted by the upper classes and had a profound impact on Japanese culture.

Amidist Schools

Founder: Huiyuan (慧遠, Jp. Eon), China, c. 400 AD
Chinese name: Jingtu (浄土) "Pure Land"
First Introduction to Japan: Honen (法然), 1175 AD
Doctrine: nembutsu (念仏, "prayer to Buddha")
Primary Text: Infinite Life Sutra (Muryojukyo 無量壽経)

Founder: Shinran (親鸞), 1224 AD
Japanese name: 浄土真, "True Pure Land"
Major Influences: Jodo
Doctrine: shintai zokutai (真諦俗諦, "Real Truth, Common Truth")
Primary Text: Infinite Life Sutra (Muryojukyo 無量壽経)

Zen Schools

Several variants of Zen (禅宗) were separately brought to Japan. Note that Zen influences are identifiable earlier in Japanese Buddhism, esp. cross-fertilization with Hosso and Kegon, but the independent schools were formed quite late.

Founders: Caoshan (曹山, Jp. Sosan) and Dongshan (洞山, Jp. Tosan), China, c. 850
Chinese name: Caodong (曹洞), named after its founders
First Introduction to Japan: Dogen (道玄), 1227 AD
Major Influences: Hosso, Kegon
Doctrine: zazen (座禅, "sitting meditation"), especially shikantaza
Primary Texts: Transcendental Wisdom Sutras aka Prajnaparamita Sutras (般若波羅蜜経), incl. Heart Sutra

Japanese Buddhist priest c.1897

Founder: Linji (臨済), China, c. 850
Chinese name: Linji (臨済), named after founder
First Introduction to Japan: Eisai (栄西), 1191 AD
Major Influences: Hosso, Kegon
Doctrine: zazen (座禅, "sitting meditation"), especially koan (公案, "public matter") practice
Primary Texts: Transcendental Wisdom Sutras aka Prajnaparamita Sutras (般若波羅蜜経), incl. Heart Sutra

Founder: Ingen (隠元), Japan, 1654 AD
Japanese name: 黄檗, named the mountain where the founder had lived in China
Major Influences: Rinzai
Doctrine: kyozen itchi (経禅一致, "Unity of Sutras and Zen")
Primary Texts: Transcendental Wisdom Sutras aka Prajnaparamita Sutras (般若波羅蜜経), incl. Heart Sutra

Founder: Puhua Chanshi (普化禅師)
First introduction to Japan: Shinchin Kakushin (心地覚心), 1254 AD
Major Influences: Rinzai
Abolished: 1871

Nichiren Buddhism

The schools of Nichiren Buddhism trace themselves to the monk Nichiren (日蓮: "Sun-Lotus") and the proclamation of his teachings in AD 1253. Doctrinally the schools focus on the Lotus Sutra (妙法蓮華経: Myoho Renge Kyō; abbrev. 法華経: Hokkekyō), but practice centers on the mantra Nam(u) Myōhō Renge Kyō (南無妙法蓮華経). Nichiren Buddhism split into several denominations after the death of Nichiren, typically represented by tradition-oriented schools such as Nichiren Shu and Nichiren Shoshu and "new religions" such as Soka Gakkai, Rissho Kosei Kai, and Reiyukai. See Nichiren Buddhism for a more complete list.

Silk Road artistic influences

In Japan, Buddhist art started to develop as the country converted to Buddhism in 548 CE. Some tiles from the Asuka period (shown above), the first period following the conversion of the country to Buddhism, display a strikingly classical style, with ample Hellenistic dress and realistically-rendered body shape characteristic of Greco-Buddhist art.

Other works of art incorporated a variety of Chinese and Korean influences, so that Japanese Buddhist became extremely varied in its expression. Many elements of Greco-Buddhist art remain to this day however, such as the Hercules inspiration behind the Nio guardian deities in front of Japanese Buddhist temples, or representations of the Buddha reminiscent of Greek art such as the Buddha in Kamakura "Needless to say, the influence of Greek art on Japanese Buddhist art, via the Buddhist art of Gandhara and India, was already partly known in, for example, the comparison of the wavy drapery of the Buddha images, in what was, originally, a typical Greek style" (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p19).

Deities

Iconographical evolution of the Wind God.
Left: Greek wind god from Hadda, 2nd century.
Middle: wind god from Kizil, Tarim Basin, 7th century.
Right: Japanese wind god Fujin, 17th century.

Iconographical evolution from the Greek god Herakles to the Japanese god Shukongōshin. From left to right:
1) Herakles (Louvre Museum).
2) Herakles on coin of Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I.
3) Vajrapani, the protector of the Buddha, depicted as Herakles in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara.
4) Shukongōshin, manifestation of Vajrapani, as protector deity of Buddhist temples in Japan.

Various other Greco-Buddhist artistic influences can be found in the Japanese Buddhist pantheon, the most striking of which being that of the Japanese wind god Fujin. In consistency with Greek iconography for the wind god Boreas, the Japanese wind god holds above his head with his two hands a draping or "wind bag" in the same general attitude "The Japanese wind god images do not belong to a separate tradition apart from that of their Western counter-parts but share the same origins. (...) One of the characteristics of these Far Eastern wind god images is the wind bag held by this god with both hands, the origin of which can be traced back to the shawl or mantle worn by Boreas/ Oado." (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p21). The abundance of hair have been kept in the Japanese rendering, as well as exaggerated facial features.

Another Buddhist deity, named Shukongoshin, one of the wrath-filled protector deities of Buddhist temples in Japan, is also an interesting case of transmission of the image of the famous Greek god Herakles to the Far-East along the Silk Road. Herakles was used in Greco-Buddhist art to represent Vajrapani, the protector of the Buddha, and his representation was then used in China and Japan to depict the protector gods of Buddhist temples "The origin of the image of Vajrapani should be explained. This deity is the protector and guide of the Buddha Sakyamuni. His image was modelled after that of Hercules. (...) The Gandharan Vajrapani was transformed in Central Asia and China and afterwards transmitted to Japan, where it exerted stylistic influences on the wrestler-like statues of the Guardian Deities (Nio)." (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p23).

Artistic motifs

Finally, the artistic inspiration from Greek floral scrolls is found quite literally in the decoration of Japanese roof tiles, one of the only remaining element of wooden architecture throughout centuries. The clearest one are from 7th century Nara temple building tiles, some of them exactly depicting vines and grapes. These motifs have evolved towards more symbolic representations, but essentially remain to this day in many Japanese traditional buildings The transmission of the floral scroll pattern from West to East is presented in the regular exhibition of Ancient Japanese Art, at the Tokyo National Museum..

Timeline

654: Dosho introduces the Hosso (Faxiang) school to Japan.
736: Bodhisena introduces the Kegon (Huayan) school to Japan.
753: Ganjin introduces the Ritsu (Lü, Vinaya) school to Japan.
807: Saicho introduces the Tendai (Tientai) school to Japan.
816: Kukai founds the Shingon school.
1175: Honen introduces the Jodo (Pure Land) school to Japan.
1191: Eisai introduces the Rinzai (Linji) school to Japan.
1227: Dogen introduces the Soto (Caodung) school to Japan.
1253: Nichiren founds the Nichiren school.
1282: Nichiren school begins to split into several schools.
1654: Ingen introduces the Obaku (Huangbo) school to Japan.

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Notes

References

Asakawa, K and Lodge, Henry Cabot (Ed.). Japan From the Japanese Government History.
"Japanese Buddhism" by Sir Charles Eliot, ISBN 0710309678

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