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Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

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C.G.E. Mannerheim
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C.G.E. Mannerheim

C.G.E. Mannerheim's autograph
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C.G.E. Mannerheim's autograph

This article is about the Finnish statesman and Commander-in-Chief. For the noble families, see Mannerheim (family)
Baron Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim (June 4, 1867 – January 28, 1951) was the Commander-in-Chief of Finland's Defence Forces, Marshal of Finland, an astute politician and a successful military commander. He was the President of Finland (1944–1946).

Mannerheim was born in Louhisaari Manor in Askainen to a Finland-Swedish family of partially Dutch ancestry that had been ennobled in 1768. He was related to Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld and was the third child in a noble family in which the younger sons inherited the title of Baron (in Finnish Vapaaherra, in Swedish Friherre). Mannerheim was christened Carl Gustaf Emil, but was called by his middle name Gustaf (in Finnish Kustaa) and throughout his whole life he signed his private letters Gustaf or G. Besides his native language, Swedish, he also spoke Finnish, Russian, French, German, English and Polish. Interestingly enough, Mannerheim only learned to speak Finnish when he was in his fifties.

Contents

Ancestry and early life

Mannerheim's equestrian statue by Mannerheimintie, a central road in downtown Helsinki, the capital of Finland
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Mannerheim's equestrian statue by Mannerheimintie, a central road in downtown Helsinki, the capital of Finland

The Mannerheim family descended from a Dutch businessman and mill owner, Henrik Marhein, who emigrated to Gävle in Sweden. His son, Augustin Marhein, was raised to the nobility in 1693, with his surname later becoming Mannerheim. His son, an artillery colonel and a mill supervisor, Johan Augustin Mannerheim, was raised to the status of Baron at the same time as his brother in 1768. The Mannerheim family came to Finland in the latter part of 18th century.

Mannerheim's great-grandfather, Carl Erik Mannerheim (1759-1837), had held a number of offices in Finland's civil service during the early years of the semi-autonomous Russian Grand Duchy of Finland, including membership of the Senate. In 1825, he was promoted to the rank of Count (in Finnish Kreivi, in Swedish Greve). Mannerheim's grandfather, Count Carl Gustaf Mannerheim (1797-1854), was a renowned entomologist, and served as President of the Viipuri Court of Appeal.

Mannerheim's father, Count Carl Robert (1835-1914), was a poet, writer and businessman. His businesses were not successful though, and he eventually became bankrupt. He later moved to Paris and lived the life of an artist. Mannerheim's mother, Hedvig Charlotta (Hélène) von Julin (1842-1881), was a member of the wealthy von Julin family. The family residence of Louhisaari manor had to be sold in 1880 to cover the debts of Count Carl Robert, and the following year his wife died, leaving their children to be brought up by relatives.

Due to the worsened economic situation of the family, Mannerheim was sent to the school of the Finnish Cadet Corps in Hamina in 1882, at the age of 15. He was later expelled for breaches of discipline in 1886. He then attended the Helsinki Private Lyceum, passing his university entrance examinations in June 1887. Immediately after that he left for Saint Petersburg, where he was accepted into the Nicholas Cavalry School. At that time Finland was a Grand Duchy in personal union with Russia. He graduated in 1889, was promoted to the rank of Cornet, and was posted with the 15th Alexandria Dragoon Regiment in Poland while waiting for a position to become available with the Chevalier Guards.

An Officer in the Imperial Russian Army

Eventually, in January 1891, Mannerheim was transferred to serve in Her Majesty Maria Feodorovna's Chevalier Guards in St Petersburg. His family arranged for him to be married to Anastasie Arapova (1872-1936), the daughter of the Russian Major-General Nikolai Arapov, largely for economic reasons. They had two daughters, Anastasie (1893-1977) and Sophie (1895-1963). The marriage ended in an unofficial separation in 1902 and in a formal divorce in 1919.

Mannerheim served in the Chevalier Guards until 1904, though he was posted to the Imperial Court Stables Administration from 1897 to 1903. Mannerheim specialised as an expert on horses, buying stud stallions and special duty horses for the army. In 1903 he was put in charge of a display squadron and became a member of the equestrian training board of the cavalry regiments. In October 1904, Mannerheim was transferred to the 52nd Nezhin Dragoon Regiment in Manchuria, with the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel. He fought in the Russo-Japanese War and was promoted to Colonel for his bravery in the battle of Mukden.

On returning from the war, Mannerheim spent time in Finland and Sweden 1905-1906. As a representative of the baronial branch of his family, he was present as a members of the Estate of Nobility in the last session of the Diet of Finland. He also led an expedition to China, travelling from Tashkent to Kashgar from July to October 1906, with the French scientist Paul Pelliot. Shortly thereafter, he led a separate expedition into China until the autumn of 1908. The expedition had strategic purposes, in addition to anthropological, because these areas in northern China were a potential point of crisis between Russia, China and even the United Kingdom (see: The Great Game).

After the trip, in 1909 he was appointed commander of the 13th Vladimir Uhlan Regiment. The following year, Mannerheim was promoted to Major General and was posted as the commander of the Life Guard Uhlan Regiment of His Majesty in Warsaw. In 1912 he became a part of Imperial entourage, he was appointed a cavalry brigade commander in 1913.

In World War I, Mannerheim served as a cavalry commander at the Austro-Hungarian and Romanian fronts. After distinguishing himself in combat against the Austro-Hungarian forces, Mannerheim was in December 1914 awarded one of the highest honours of Imperial Russia, St. George's Cross, 4th class. In 1915 Mannerheim rose to command the 12th Cavalry Division and, after the February Revolution of 1917, he took the command of the 6th Cavalry Corps in the summer of 1917. Already in April 1917 Mannerheim had been promoted to Lieutenant General (the promotion was backdated to February 1915). However, Mannerheim fell out of favor with the new government, who regarded him as one of the officers who did not support the revolution. In September he was relieved of his duties, when in sick leave after falling from his horse. He was now in the reserve and trying to recover his health in Odessa. He began planning retirement to civilian life and a return to Finland.

From Civil-War Victor to Head of State

See also Finnish Civil War
In January 1918 the Senate of the newly independent Finland, under its chairman Pehr Evind Svinhufvud, appointed Mannerheim as Commander-in-Chief of Finland's almost nonexistent army, which was then not much more than a number of locally set up White Guards. His mission was the defence of the Government during the Civil War in Finland. He accepted the position despite of his misgivings about the German influences in the government. He founded his headquarters in Seinäjoki and began to disarm the remaining Russian garrisons and their 42,500 troops. During the ensuing Civil War (or War of Liberty, as it was known among the "Whites") in March 1918, Mannerheim was promoted to General of Cavalry (Ratsuväenkenraali).

Dismayed at the increasing German influence, Mannerheim left the country temporarily in June 1918. Mannerheim was thus out of the country during the last, fateful period of the civil war, a time of mass deaths as a result of disease and starvation in prison camps and of lengthy trials. During the war he had already tried to stop the "White terror" and had opposed the mass imprisonment of Reds.

In autumn 1918, Mannerheim held discussions in London and Paris. In September he was summoned back from Paris to become Protector of the State or Regent (Valtionhoitaja; Riksföreståndare). There were even monarchists who wanted to make him King of Finland. After the elected Frederick Charles of Hesse had aroused the victorious Allies' suspicions, and renounced the throne, Mannerheim secured recognition of the independent Finland from the United Kingdom and USA. He also requested and received food aid from overseas to avoid famine. Although he was an ardent anti-Bolshevik, he eventually refused an alliance with Russian White generals because they would not have recognized Finnish independence. In 1919 he lost the presidential election in the Parliament to Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg and retreated from public life.

Between the Wars

In the interwar years, his pursuits were mainly humanitarian. He supported the Finnish Red Cross and founded the Mannerheim's Children's Foundation. In 1929 he refused the right-wing radicals' plea to become a de facto military dictator, although he did express some support for the right-wing semi-fascist Lapua Movement. After President Pehr Evind Svinhufvud was elected 1931, he appointed Mannerheim as chairman of Finland's Defence Council. At the same time Mannerheim received the written promise that in the event of a war, he would become the Commander-in-Chief (Svinhufvud's successor Kyösti Kallio renewed this promise in 1937). In 1933 he received the honorary title of Field Marshal (sotamarsalkka, fältmarskalk). Mannerheim supported Finland's military industry and sought (in vain) to establish a military defence union with Sweden. However, rearming the Finnish army did not occur as swiftly or as well as he hoped and he was not enthusiastic about a war. He had many disagreements with various Cabinets, and signed numerous letters of resignation.

Commander-in-Chief

See also Winter War, Continuation War and Lapland War
When negotiations with the Soviet Union failed in 1939, Mannerheim on October 17 again withdrew his resignation, thereby again accepting the position as Commander-in-Chief of Finnish army in case of war. He reorganized his headquarters in Mikkeli. Officially he became the Commander-in-Chief after the Soviet attack on November 30. His strategic aide was Lieutenant General Aksel Airo.

Mannerheim spent most of the Winter War and Continuation War in his Mikkeli headquarters but made many visits to the front. Between the wars, he held on to the authority as Commander-in-Chief, which according to the letter of law should have gone back to the presidents (Kyösti Kallio and Risto Ryti) after the Moscow Peace, March 12, 1940.

In the Continuation War, Mannerheim kept relations with Nazi Germany's government as formal as possible and successfully opposed their proposals for a treaty of alliance. Mannerheim also firmly refused to let his troops contribute to the Siege of Leningrad.

Mannerheim's 75th birthday on June 4, 1942, was a major occasion. The government granted him the unique title of Marshal of Finland (Suomen Marsalkka in Finnish, Marskalken av Finland in Swedish). He was the first and only person to receive the title. A surprise visit by Adolf Hitler in honour of Mannerheim's birthday was less pleasing to him and caused some embarrassment.

Visit by Adolf Hitler

Hitler had decided to visit Finland on June 4, 1942, ostensibly to congratulate Mannerheim on his 75th birthday. But Mannerheim did not want to meet Hitler, either in his Headquarters at Mikkeli, or in Helsinki, as it would have seemed more like an official state visit. The meeting took place at a railway siding near the airfield at Immola, in south-eastern Finland, and was arranged in secrecy.

From the airfield, Hitler, accompanied by President Ryti, was driven to where Mannerheim was waiting at a railroad siding. When Hitler saw the Marshal, he ran toward him. "An officer doesn't run," Mannerheim is said to have remarked to the officers accompanying him. "Only corporals do that."

Hitler, who was much shorter than Mannerheim, wore special high-heeled boots, and had asked his photographers to photograph him only from an angle that showed his height favorably alongside Mannerheim. After a congratulatory speech from Hitler, and following an awkward meal, at the conclusion of which Mannerheim lit a large cigar fully knowing that his guest could not abide cigar smoke, Hitler returned to Germany, having spent only around five hours in Finland. He had reportedly intended to ask the Finns to step up their military operations against the Soviets, but the uneasy encounter with Mannerheim appears to have deterred him from making any specific demands.

During the visit an engineer of the Finnish broadcasting company YLE, Thor Damen, recorded Hitler and Mannerheim in a private conversation, something which had to be done secretly as Hitler never allowed recordings of him off-guard. Today the recording is the only known recording of Hitler not speaking in an official tone. The recording[link] captures 11 and a half minute of the two leaders in private conversation. Hitler speaks in a slightly excited, but still intellectually detached manner during this talk (the speech has been compared to that of the working class). The majority of the recording is an monologue by Hitler. In the recording, Hitler admits to underestimating the Soviet Union's ability to conduct war (some English transcripts exist [link] [link]).

Assessment of Mannerheim's leadership

Mannerheim's wartime record as the Finnish Commander-in-Chief is not easy to assess. At the time, and even to this day, Mannerheim's immense prestige made criticism of his conduct of war almost tantamount to treason (especially as the criticism often came from Soviet sources and Finnish communists). It is perhaps easiest to divide Mannerheim's role in two: Mannerheim the military commander and Mannerheim the politician.

As a military commander Mannerheim was generally very successful. Under his leadership the Finnish Defense Forces fought a generally successful war that in the end saved Finland from Soviet occupation. Mannerheim took great care not to waste the lives of his soldiers, and avoided unnecessary risks. Perhaps his greatest shortcoming was his unwillingness to delegate. While he had a number of very able subordinates, foremost among them Lieutenant General Aksel Airo, Mannerheim insisted that all the department heads in the Finnish General Headquarters report directly to him, leaving Chief of General Staff General of Infantry Erik Heinrichs little to do. Indeed, Mannerheim said that he did not want to be 'one man's prisoner'. Mannerheim overwhelmed himself with work, and as a result coordination between the different departments in the General Headquarters suffered. It has been suggested that one reason why the Soviet offensive in Karelian Isthmus in June 1944 took Finns by surprise, was that Mannerheim was unable to see the forest for the trees. There was no other authority save Mannerheim who could collect all the intelligence and turn it into operational directives.

On the other hand it can be argued that Mannerheim excelled in politics. Even though a soldier, and as such not supposed to take part in politics, Mannerheim could not help but be a highly political figure. A vital question during the war was when to make peace with Soviet Union. Too early would mean that the Nazi Germany would be in a position to retaliate. Too late would risk a Soviet occupation of Finland. As soon as 1942, it became increasingly clear that Germany would not necessarily vanquish the Soviet Union. Mannerheim was kept, as it were, in reserve, in order to potentially take the leadership of the nation and lead it to peace. Mannerheim played this role very skilfully; he had a clear vision how Finland should conduct its war in the sensitive situation when the war's ultimate end was unclear. He knew how to treat the Germans to secure as much military support as possible without involving Finland in any binding treaties. For example, during the build-up for the Continuation War in 1941 Mannerheim was offered the command of all German forces in Finnish soil. While such an arrangement could have made prosecuting the war simpler, Mannerheim recognized that Hitler would not give Finns free hand in directing this part of the German offensive. As Mannerheim wanted at all costs avoid a situation where he would have to take directives or orders from Berlin, he refused the offer.

End of the war and a brief presidency

In June 1944 Mannerheim, to ensure German support at a time a major Soviet offensive was threatening Finland, thought it necessary for Finland to agree in the pact German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop demanded. But even then Mannerheim managed to distance himself from the pact and it fell for the Finnish President Risto Ryti to sign the pact that came to be known as the Ryti-Ribbentrop Agreement. Mannerheim's policy reached its logical conclusion when the agreement was revoked with the resignation of President Ryti in July 1944. Mannerheim succeeded him as President.

At the moment when Germany was deemed sufficiently weakened, and the USSR's summer offensive was fought to standstill (see Battle of Tali-Ihantala) (thanks to President Risto Ryti's agreement with the Germans in June 1944), Finland's leaders saw a chance to reach a peace with the Soviet Union. It became clear that Mannerheim was the only figure with the sufficient prestige, both internationally and domestically, required to extricate Finland from the war. He enjoyed the confidence of a large majority of the Finnish people, and was effectively the only statesman with the authority necessary to guide Finland in the transition from war to peace.

At first attempts were made to peruade Mannerheim to become Prime Minister, but he rejected these proposals on account of his age and lack of knowledge of the detailed techniques of government. It was then suggested that he should become Head of State, with him being elected by Parliament as Regent after Ryti resigned. The use of the title of Regent would have reflected the exceptional circumstances of his election. Mannerheim and Ryti both agreed to this proposal, and Ryti resigned as President on 29 July, giving as his reasons the state of his health and the necessity of combining civil and military authority in one person at that key moment. Mannerheim then decided that he wished to be elected as President to avoid any misconceptions about his taking office. Due to the difficult conditions general elections could not be held, and therefore it was the Parliament which elected Mannerheim as President of the Republic on August 4, 1944. He took the oath of office later that day. The dangerous state that Finland found itself in at that moment was reflected in Mannerheim's inauguration speech before the Finnish Parliament:

"Mr Speaker, I wish to express my heartfelt thanks for the kind words that you spoke about me. Honourable members of parliament, In accepting for the second time, at this difficult moment of national destiny, the duties of head of state, I do so deeply aware of the responsibilities placed upon me. Great are the difficulties that we will have to overcome in order to safeguard our future. Foremost in my mind at this moment is the army of Finland, now in its fifth year of battle. Trusting in the Almighty, I hope and I believe that, supported by parliament and the government, a unanimous people behind us, we will succeed in preserving our independence and the existence of our nation."
A month after he took office, the Continuation War was concluded on harsh terms, but ultimately far less harsh than those imposed on the other states bordering the Soviet Union. Finland retained its sovereignty, parliamentary democracy and market economy. The territorial losses were limited, but the war reparations were heavy. Finland also had to fight the Lapland War against the withdrawing German troops in the north, and at the same time demobilize her army. It was widely agreed that only Mannerheim could have guided Finland through these difficult times, when the Finnish people had to come to terms with the severe terms of the armistice, their implementation by a Soviet dominated Allied Control Commission, and the task of post-war reconstruction.

Mannerheim's term as President was a difficult period for him. Although he was elected for a full six-year term, he was in his late seventies, and had accepted the office reluctantly after being urged to do so by various politicians. The situation was exacerbated by his frequent periods of ill-health, and the pressure of the demands of the Control Commission, and the war responsibility trials. He was fearful throughout most of his presidency that the commission would request that he himself be tried as one of the 'war guilty,' but this never came about. Despite his criticisms of some of the demands of the Control Commission, Mannerheim worked hard to carry out Finland's armistice obligations. He also emphasised the necessity of further work on reconstruction in Finland after the war.

Mannerheim was troubled by recurring health problems during 1945, and was absent on medical leave from his duties as President from November of that year until February 1946. He spent six weeks during that time in Portugal on a break to restore his health. After the announcement of the verdicts in the war guilt trials had been announced in January, Mannerheim decided to resign. He concluded that he had accomplished the duties he had been elected to carry out. The war had been ended, the armistice obligations were being carried out, and the war guilt trials had ended.

Mannerheim resigned as President on March 4 1946, giving as his reasons his declining health and his view that the tasks he had been elected to carry out had been accomplished. Even the Finnish communists, his enemies in 1918, recognized his peacemaking efforts and his role in maintaing the unity of the country during a difficult period. He was succeeded by his conservative and Russophilic Prime Minister, Juho Kusti Paasikivi.

Later life

After his resignation, Mannerheim bought Kirkniemi Manor in Lohja, intending to spend his retirement there. But in June 1946 he had a life-saving operation carried out on a perforated ulcer, and in October of that year he was diagnosed with a duodenal ulcer. In early 1947 it was recommended that he should travel to the Valmont sanatorium in Montreux, Switzerland to recuperate and write his memoirs. Valmont was to be Mannerheim's main place of residence for the remaining years of his life, although he regularly returned to stay in Finland, and also visited Sweden, France, and Italy.

Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim died on January 28 (Finnish time, January 27 local time), 1951 in the Cantonal hospital in Lausanne, Switzerland. He was buried on February 4 1951 in the Hietaniemi cemetery in Helsinki in a state funeral with full military honours, and today retains respect as one of Finland's greatest statesmen.

Mannerheim's birthday, the fourth of June, is celebrated as the Flag Day of the Finnish Defence Forces. This decision was made by the Finnish Government on the occasion of his 75th birthday in 1942, when he was also granted the title of Marshal of Finland. The Flag Day is celebrated with a national parade, and rewards and promotions for members of the Defence Forces.

Military ranks and postings

Mannerheim was Commander-in-Chief of the White Guard from January to May 1918. He was also Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Defence Forces from December 1918 to July 1919, and from 1939 to 1946. He was Chairman of the Defence Council from 1931 to 1939.

Honours and other positions

Trivia

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Gallery

Image:Mannerheim during Winter War.jpg|Mannerheim during the Winter War Image:Mannerheim studying a map.jpg|Mannerheim studying a map Image:Honorary guard of Mannerheim.jpg|The ceremonial honorary guard of the coffin of Carl Gustav Emil Mannerheim Image:Mannerheim grave.jpg|Grave of Carl Gustav Emil Mannerheim

References

See also

External links

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