Child sexuality

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Child sexuality refers to sexual feelings, behavior and development in children.

Contents

Two basic views

Theories of sexual development may be broadly divided into two schools of thought:

Those which tend to emphasize innate biology (which may be encouraged or disturbed during childhood).
Those which tend to emphasize sexuality as a social construct (with child sexuality strongly influenced by the larger society). This latter school often uses the terms normative (culturally appropriate behavior) and non-normative (culturally inappropriate behavior).^{[#endnote_larsson]}, and is the approach used in most scholarship and most discussed in this article.

Research

Early research

The two most famous figures in child sexuality research are probably Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) and Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956).

Freud's 1905 work Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality outlined a theory of psychosexual development with five distinct phases: the oral stage (0 - 1.5 years), the anal stage (1.5 - 3.5 years), the phallic stage (3.5 - 6 years) culminating in the resolution of the Oedipus conflict followed by a period of sexual latency (6 years to puberty) and the genital, or adult, stage. Freud's basic thesis was that children's early sexuality is polymorphous and that strong incestual drives develop, and the child must harness or sublimate these to develop a healthy adult sexuality.

Freud's theories were developed about a century ago in an environment differing from the modern, and his research was largely confined to his own observations and readings.^{[[Citing sources citation needed]]} Some of Freud's theories (such as penis envy) have been largely superceded, and many modern experts consider his work obsolete, but the core body of his work has never been entirely either accepted or rejected by the scientific and medical communities.

Alfred Kinsey, whose two seminal works are the Kinsey Reports (1948 and 1953), marshalled the resources to make the first large-scale surveys of sexual behavior. Kinsey's work focuses on adults, but he also studied children and developed the first statistical reports of childhood masturbation.

Swedish researcher IngBeth Larsson, writing in 2000, notes that "It is quite common for references still to cite Alfred Kinsey", due to the paucity of subsequent large-scale studies of children's sexual behavior.^{[#endnote_larsson]}

Current methodology of study

Empirical knowledge about child sexual behaviour is not usually gathered by direct interviews of children, (partly due to ethical considerations),^{[#endnote_larsson]} but rather by:

Observing children being treated for problematical behavior such as use of force in sex play,^{[#endnote_larsson_cite_gil]} often using dolls having genitals.^{[#endnote_larsson_cite_cohn]}
Recollections by adults.^{[#endnote_larsson_cite_haugaard]} and
Observation by caregivers.^{[#endnote_larsson_cite_friedrich]}.

Studies relying on adults who try to recall events that occurred long ago are possibly subject to error, and thus basically may only give an idea of the types of behavior that children engage in, not an accurate idea of its frequency.^{[[Citing sources citation needed]]}

Behavior

Normative and non-normative behaviors

Although there is variation between individuals, children generally are curious about their own bodies and those of others and engage in explorative sex play.^{[#endnote_larrson]} However, child sexuality is fundamentally different from goal-driven adult sexual behavior, and imitation of adult behaviors such as bodily penetration and oral-genital contact are very uncommon^{[#endnote_larsson_cite_larsson&svedin]} and usually indicate that the child has been sexually abused.^{[#endnote_larsson]}. Children with other types of behaviour disorder may also display more behaviours of a sexual nature than other children.^{[#endnote_larsson]}

Symptomatic behaviors

Children who have been the victim of sexual abuse usually show sexualized behavior,^{[#endnote_larsson_cite_kendall]}^{[#endnote_larsson_cite_friedrich2]} which may be defined as expressed behavior that is non-normative for the culture. Typical symptomatic behaviors in developed societies may include attempting to involve other children in unwanted sexual activities, and excessive masturbation^{[#endnote_larsson_cite_kendall]} or public masturbation.^{[#endnote_larsson_cite_kendall-tackett]} Sexualized behavior can constitute the best indication that a child has been sexually abused,^{[#endnote_larsson_cite_kendall]} although some victims do not exhibit abnormal behavior.^{[#endnote_larsson_cite_kendall-tackett]}

Children who exhibit sexualized behavior may also have other behavioral problems, although factors other than sexual abuse may cause these problems.^{[#endnote_larsson_cite_friedrich2]} Other symptoms of sexual abuse may include manifestations of post-traumatic stress in younger children; fear, aggression, and nightmares in young school-age children; and depression in older children.^{[#endnote_larsson_cite_kendall-tackett]}

Normative behavior

The following sections describes typical culturally-normed behavior in most current developed Western societies.

Early childhood

The term early childhood may cover up through ages four, five, or six, depending on the focus of the particular researcher or commentator. During this period,

Children in the first two years of life engage in simple pleasurable handling of their genitals.^{[[Citing sources citation needed]]}
Children through age four or so generally explore their own bodies rather than those of peers.^{[#endnote_larrson_cite_gil]}. At about age four, curiosity about their own genitals and those of peers increases, and they may fondle their own genitalia and show them to others.^{[#endnote_larrson_cite_gil]}
Beginning at about age five children become more peer-oriented and may take part in exploration with friends^{[#endnote_larrson_cite_gil]}, including kissing and hugging games.^{[#endnote_larrson_cite_gil]}
Children may express interest in activities related to the toilet.^{[#endnote_larrson_cite_gil]}
Children may play house.^{[#endnote_larrson_cite_gil]}
Beginning around age five, children develop inhibitions in certain situations.^{[#endnote_larrson_cite_gil]}
Some generally-accepted prescriptions (American) are that during this period children should learn:
*That touching their sex organs is normal, and to seek privacy when they want to touch their sex organs for pleasure.^{[#endnote_planned_parenthood]}
*The biological differences between males and females, and how babies are made.^{[#endnote_planned_parenthood]}
*That the child's body belongs to himself or herself, and how to say "no" to unwanted touching.^{[#endnote_planned_parenthood]}
*The correct terms for sexual body parts, and how to talk about all their body parts without feeling naughty.^{[#endnote_planned_parenthood]}

Masturbation and orgasm

According to Alfred Kinsey's examinations in the 1950s, children are capable of experiencing orgasm from the age of five months. Kinsey observed that among three-year-olds, girls more often masturbated than boys, probably because of their faster developed motor function.^{[[Citing sources citation needed]]} Lubrication of the vagina was also observed on sexually aroused girls, similar to that of adult women. Until boys start producing semen (around puberty), they can only experience dry orgasms.

More recent studies in Sweden indicate that masturbation in children of this is age is unusual, and more common with boys than with girls.^{[#endnote_larsson_cite_larsson&vedin]}

Some researchers have suggested that child masturbation may be considered nonsexual if the child has not learned to associate it with sex.^{[#endnote_gagnon]}

Early school age knowledge

Some generally-accepted prescriptions (American) are that during early school years, approximately ages five through seven, children should learn these concepts:
*That all creatures reproduce themselves, and how plants and animals grow and reproduce.^{[#endnote_planned_parenthood]}
*That all people, including the child's parents and grandparents, live through a life cycle that has a beginning and an end and includes sexuality at all ages.^{[#endnote_planned_parenthood]}
*That people experience sexual pleasure in a number of ways, and that it is normal to have sexual thoughts and fantasies.^{[#endnote_planned_parenthood]}
*About non-stereotyped gender roles, and that sexual identity includes sexual orientation (lesbian, gay, straight, or bisexual).^{[#endnote_planned_parenthood]}
*About sexual abuse and its dangers — that sexual predators may seem kind, giving, and loving, and may be friends or family members; and to protect themselves from potential sexual abuse.^{[#endnote_planned_parenthood]}

Peer groups

As soon as social interaction between children has matured, activity for sexual satisfaction expands to members of the peer group (same age). Sexual activity among children is often observed in nurseries. The motivation is mainly sexual satisfaction and to a lesser extent interest in the bodies of others^{[[Citing sources citation needed]]}. Children often temporarily lose interest in further exploration after initial satisfaction, and explorations continue over a longer period. Additionally about half of the observed sexual activities involve a partner of the same sex.^{[[Citing sources citation needed]]}

Middle childhood

'Middle childhood' covers the ages from about six to about nine, depending on the methodology and the behavior being studied. Individual development varies considerably.

Sexual activities

Sexual activities widely vary. They include sexually motivated hugs and kissing as well as genital play and one-sided or mutual masturbation. The most common activity for boys and girls is masturbation of themselves. For mutual activity, it is mutual masturbation.

In most of the observed sexual activities, an available and willing partner is picked without prior intimacy as a precondition.

There is consent that sexual preferences and the associated sexual fantasies show up early and stabilize during further development.^{[[Citing sources citation needed]]} Isolated reports by homosexuals about their childhood say that they were aware of their affection to the same sex or to a certain age group and had corresponding fantasies.^{[[Citing sources citation needed]]}

Sigmund Freud suggested that this was a time of sexual latency, when the healthy child ceased all sexual interest and was vulnerable to trauma if he or she experienced sexuality. Researchers find little evidence to support this theory.
Boys enjoy rule-breaking, including "talking dirty", and they get visibly excited while engaging in such talk. Sexual language and jokes increase during this time. Some boys may share pornography with each other. Others may perform sexual play on each other.
Girls have giggling sessions with their friends, with sex often being the source of amusement.
Children may like to talk to their mother or father privately about marriage, pregnancy, and birth, but may be disturbed about thoughts of intercourse and/or delivery. Their questions may persist over a long period of time.
They may be sensitive about an opposite sex sibling or playmate seeing them without clothing.
On the other hand, they continue to be curious about anatomical differences; playing "show" and "doctor" help satisfy that curiosity.
Sexual fantasies among 8- or 9-year olds might take any form known to adults. One study showed they were aided by photos of nudes or pornographic magazines, or involved people the children knew.
Greater peer group activity can lead to group masturbation and sexual experimentation. If children are left unsupervised, sex play will occasionally occur.
How sexual the activity becomes depends on how much sexual activity the children have observed and how permissive the society is. Children in cultures where they are able to observe adult sexual relations will engage in copulatory behaviors as early as 6 or 7 years of age.
A 1943 study of primarily white, middle and upper-middle class Midwestern urban boys found that 16% had experienced coitus by age 8.^{[#endnote_1943ramsey]}
Sex play with older children is also common. Some is pleasant to the child, some is not. Children's interest and curiosity about sex may be exploited by older siblings or extended family members and caretakers.
Children become interested in boy/girl relationships and may have a girlfriend or boyfriend, but these relationships tend to be short with little personal involvement.

Later childhood

Later childhood covers the period from roughly age ten until the onset of puberty. This age range is often called prepubescence.

Most boys understand the fundamentals of intercourse. Some view pornographic magazines together.
Children tend to adhere to peer groups of their same sex. If there is any boy-girl pairing, it is usually done because the culture expects it. The relationships are predominantly social rather than sexual. Teasing peers about interest in the opposite sex is common.
There are kissing games and more serious goal-directed kissing, frequently marked by excitement, erotic overtones, embarrassment, or guilt. Some is experienced very positively, some very negatively. Many American children acquire experience with deep kissing.
Often a sexual experience occurs as a result of a specific occasion such as an athletic event, a band or play rehearsal, a sleepover, a visit to cousins, or a party. Activities sometimes change from games or dancing into more intimate caressing and fondling.
It is said some American children experience oral sex, anal sex, or intercourse prior to puberty.
Studies have found that before age 13, from one-third to half have engaged in sex play, and from 20% to one-third have attempted or completed intercourse.
While sexual intercourse is not common at this age in the US, it is established practice in some societies.
Studies have found that one-third to one-half of children have engaged in same-gender activity (such as masturbation, touching of the genitals, or exhibitionism) by age 14. One study found sexual activity was more frequent for boys in the lower socio-educational level, who had received sexual information from older boys or adult males. Their activity involved fondling, mutual masturbation, or fellatio^{[[Citing sources citation needed]]}. (This appears to be unrelated to adult sexual orientation.)

Sex play among siblings

Researcher Floyd Martinson writes that because of the constant, close interaction of siblings, sex play may occur between them. A 1980 study of college students found 10% to 15% had had a childhood sexual experience with a brother or sister. 40% had been under the age of 8 at the time. The most common activities were touching and fondling of the genitals. 30% reported positive reactions and 30% reported negative reactions, but most did not have strong feelings about these experiences. Some type of coercion had been used in one quarter of the experiences; negative reactions tend to be associated with coercion.

Martinson also writes that in the process of growing up, it is common for children to have encounters involving exposing or sexual touching in which the other child is either too young or too old to be regarded as a peer. Some encounters are pleasant to the child, others are not. Some are clearly abusive. Negative reactions tend to be more common as the difference in ages increases.^{[[Citing sources citation needed]]}

Legal aspects

In some societies (for example, in some American states) all sexual relationships between children, even consensual, are prohibited by statutory rape laws. The age at which a minor may legally consent to sexual relations with a person of any age is referred to as the Age of Consent.

In other jurisdictions (for example, some Australian states) there is no prohibition against similarly aged children engaging in consensual sex acts from as young as 10.^{[#endnote_victoria]}

Cultural issues

Childhood sexual development and expression is dependent partly on innate human nature and partly on the child's larger culture, in a mix that may vary between and indeed within cultures.

The extent of children's sexual activity depends on the way they have been brought up and how knowledgeable they are. In different communities and socioeconomic groups, stages of sexual development occur at different times and last longer or shorter depending on the attitude of adult cuture and interactions with peers. Children in cultures which permit or encourage early sexual expression display a developmental pattern that is not apparent in more sexually restrained societies, e.g.:

In early childhood, masturbation alone and in groups leads to exploration and experimentation among children of the same and the opposite sex.^{[[Citing sources citation needed]]}
Mutual masturbation, oral stimulation of the genitals, and intercourse take place between children anywhere between ages five and twelve.^{[[Citing sources citation needed]]}
Late childhood (prepubescence) is characterized by heterosexual role modeling and attempted intercourse; girls may begin having regular intercourse with older boys.^{[[Citing sources citation needed]]}
In pubescence, adult-like heterosexual patterns replace earlier ones.

In addition, sexual attitudes in western society have changed over time. Sexual exploitation of children was freely indulged in until the latter half of the 18th century, when it was repudiated.^{[[Citing sources citation needed]]} Then parents began to discipline children for their sexual curiosity and activity. During the Victorian era, the cultural belief that childhood was free of sexual knowledge, interest, and behavior coexisted with constant adult surveillance of children's sexuality. This produced a pervasive negative preoccupation with sexuality and a category of emotional disorders labeled "psychosexual."

Loretta Haroian

American researcher Loretta Haroian writes that the United States mental health community has a poorly defined concept of sexual health. It attempts to serve those who experience sexual pathology, but the definition of sexual pathology often fails to consider the broad range of human sexual activity and its developmental aspects.

Haroian notes that most parents seem to agree that the socialization of young children should inhibit sexual impulses toward family members and peers. Parents control information (using closed bedroom doors, separate sleeping arrangements for each child, separate bathing, and early modesty training) to keep dormant the young child's curiosity and to limit sexual activity.

Haroian writes that children are subject to the values of their parents and advises parents to be clear about their rules without burdening the child with fear and guilt. In addition, children may need protection from the liability of sexual contracts. She writes that this does not suggest that there is inherent harm in sexual expression in childhood; in fact, there is considerable evidence to the contrary. That is, she makes a distinction between social appropriateness or morality on the one hand, and harmfulness on the other.

Sexualization of children

Some cultural critics^{[[Citing sources citation needed]]} have postulated that over recent decades children have evidenced a level of sexual knowledge or sexual behaviour inappropriate for their age group. This is often compared and contrasted with popular notions of childhood innocence.^{[[Citing sources citation needed]]}

A number of different causes are cited, including media portrayals of sex and related issues, especially in media aimed at children; marketing of products with sexual connotations to children;[link] ;lack of parental overwatch and discipline;[link]; access to adult culture via the internet; and school sex education programs.

Conclusions

Sexual behavior varies drastically among different groups of people due to their sexual values, and among different youth due to differences in the strength of their sexual feelings and variations in their development.

What is considered morally acceptable in a particular society may bear little relationship to common behaviors, and at times sexual morality is specifically condemnatory towards behaviors that are relatively common in those societies. An example of this is the difference in moral attitudes towards bestiality which Kinsey found to be both more common and more condemned in rural areas.

Child sexuality is a complex topic that raises much controversy and one pragmatic way of viewing it in any society is to refer to the legal situation as being a consensus view of public attitudes.

Notes

↑ [Larsson, IngBeth. Child sexuality and sexual behaviour (2000, Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare (report), Article number 2000-36-001. English translation (Lambert & Tudball) Article number 2001-123-20. PDF file.]
↑ Gil, E. & Cavanagh Johnson, T. (1993). Sexualized children – Assessment and treatment of sexualized children and children who molest. Launch Press. Cited in Larsson, 2000, op. cit.
↑ Gil & Cavanagh Johnson, 1993, op. cit.; Cavanagh Johnson, T., Feldmeth, J. R. (1993). "Sexual behaviors – a continuum". In I. E. Gil & T. Cavanagh Johnson. Sexualized Children (pp. 39 – 52); Friedrich, W. N., Grambsch, P., Damon, L., Hewitt, S., Koverola, C., Lang, R., Wolfe, V., Broughton, D. (1992). "Child sexual behavior inventory: Normative and clinical comparisons". Psychological Assessment, vol. 4, no.3:303 – 311. Cited in Larsson, 2000, op. cit.
↑ Cohn, D. S. (1991). "Anatomic doll play of preschoolers referred for sexual abuse and those not referred". Child Abuse & Neglect 15:455 – 466.; Everson & Boat, 1991; Jampole, L. & Weber, M. K. (1987). "An assessment of the behavior of sexually abused and nonabused children with anatomically correct dolls". Child Abuse & Neglect: 11 187 – 192.; Sivan, A., Schor, D., Koeppl, G., Noble, L. (1988). "Interaction of normal children with anatomic dolls". Child Abuse & Neglect, 12:295 – 304. Cited in Larsson, 2000, op. cit.
↑ Haugaard, J. J. & Tilly, C (1988). "Characteristics predicting children’s responses to sexual encounters with other children". Child Abuse & Neglect 12:209 – 218.; Haugaard, J. J. (1996). "Sexual behaviors between children: Professionals’ opinions and undergraduates’ recollections". Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 2:81 – 89.; Lamb & Coakley, 1993; Larsson, Lindell & Svedin, publication datat not available; cited in Larsson, 2000, op. cit.
↑ Friedrich, W. N., Grambsch, P., Broughton, D., Kuiper, J., Beilke, R. L. (1991). "Normative sexual behavior in children". Pediatrics 88: 456 – 464; Phipps-Yonas, S., Yonas, A., Turner, M., Kauper, M, (1993). "Sexuality in early childhood". University of Minnesota Center for Urban and Regional Affairs Reports, 23:1 – 5. ; Lindblad, F., Gustafsson, P., Larsson, I., Lundin, B. (1995). "Preschooler’s sexual behaviour at daycare centers: an epidemiological study". Child Abuse & Neglect vol. 19, no. 5:569 – 577.; Fitzpatrick & Deehan, 1995; Larsson, I., Svedin, C-G. (1999). Sexual behaviour in Swedish preschool children as observed by their parents. Manuscript.; Larsson, I., Svedin C-G., Friedrich, W. "Differences and similarities in sexual behaviour among preschoolers in Sweden and USA". Nordic Journal of Psychiatry. Printing information unavailable.; Smith & Grocke, 1995; cited in Larsson, 2000, op. cit.
↑ Larsson & Svedin, 1999, op. cit.; Larsson & Svedin, publication data unavaiable; cited in Larsson, 2000, op. cit.
↑ (Friedrich et al, 1992, 1993, op. cit.; Kendall-Tackett, K. E., Williams, L., Finkelhor, D. (1993). "The impact of sexual abuse on children: A review and synthesis of recent empirical studies". Psychological Bulletin, 113:164 – 180.; Cosentino, C. E, Meyer-Mahlenburg, H., Alpert, J., Weinberg, S., Gaines, R. (1995). "Sexual behavior problems and psychopathology symptoms in sexually abused girls". Journal of American Academy Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 8:1033 – 1042.; cited in Larsson, 2000, op. cit.
↑ Friedrich et al (1992), op. cit.; cited in Larsson, 2000, op. cit.
↑ Kendall-Tackett, Williams and Finkelhor (1993), op. cit.; cited in Larsson, op.cit.
↑ [Human Sexuality — What Children Need to Know and When They Need to Know It, Planned Parenthood Federation of America]
↑ [Victoria (Australia) Crimes Act, 1958, section 45(4))]
↑ Gagnon, J. H., and Simon, W. Sexual conduct – the social sources of human sexuality (Chicago, Aldine Publishing Company, 1973)
↑ Ramsey, Glenn V. (1943). "The sexual development of boys," American Journal of Psychology, 56(2), 217-33.

External links

[Growing Up Sexually, an atlas of worldwide child sexuality]
[Childhood: A Cultural Study of Sexuality and Violence]
[Body pleasure and the origins of violence]
Mark Hanson, P. Gluckman. [Evolution, development and timing of puberty], Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism, January 2006.
[Research shows how evolution explains age of puberty], ScienceDaily, December 1, 2005.
[Geoff Birky's web site]
[Sexual abuse of children, Child sexuality and sexual behaviour- Department of Health and Environment of Sweden]
L. Haroian. [Child Sexual Development, Electron. J. Hum. Sexuality vol 3, Feb 1, 2000]

References

Diana Gittins, Children's Sexuality: Why Do Adults Panic?. In The Child in Question. Macmillan, 1997. ISBN 0333511093.
Ronald Goldman and Juliette Goldman, Children's Sexual Thinking: A Comparative Study of Children Aged Five to Fifteen Years in Australia, North America, Britain and Sweden. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1982. ISBN 071000883X.
Loretta Haroian, "Child Sexual Development", monograph prepared for student use at the Institute for Advanced Study of Human Sexuality, ca. 1985. [Online copy] by the Electronic Journal of Human Sexuality.
Stevi Jackson, Childhood and Sexuality. Blackwell Publishing, 1982. ISBN 0631128719.
Floyd M. Martinson, "Children and Sex, Part II: Childhood Sexuality", in Bullough, Vern Leroy & Bullough, Bonnie (eds.), Human Sexuality: An encyclopedia, New York: Garland Publishing, 1994, p. 111-116. [Online copy, reprinted with permission.]
Floyd M. Martinson, The Sexual Life of Children, Bergin & Garvey, 1994. ISBN 089789376X.
Susan M. Moore, Doreen A. Rosenthal, Sexuality in Adolescence. Routledge, 1993. ISBN 0415075289.
David L. Weis, "Childhood Sexuality", in Robert T. Francoeur (ed.), The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality, New York: Continuum, 1997. [Online Copy by the Magnus Hirschfeld Archive of Sexology].

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