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Chinese surname

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A Chinese surname, family name (Chinese: ; pinyin: xìng) or clan name (; shì), is one of the hundreds or thousands of family names that have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, and among ethnic Chinese in overseas Chinese communities. The colloquial expressions "the hundred surnames" lao bai xing (老百姓 lit. old hundred surnames), or ( bǎi xìng) are used in Chinese to mean "ordinary people", "the people" or "commoners". ( bǎi jiā xìng) is also used to call the list of one hundred most common surnames.

See List of common Chinese surnames (百家姓) for the 100 most common surnames.

Chinese family names are patrilineal, passed from father to children. (In cases of adoption, the adoptee usually also takes the same surname.) Chinese women, after marriage, typically retain their birth surname. Historically, however, only Chinese men possessed xìng (family name), in addition to shì; the women had only the latter, and took on their husband's xìng after marriage.

Contents

Origin of surnames

Prior to the Warring States Period (5th century BC), only the royal family and the aristocratic elite could generally take surnames. Historically there was also difference between xing and shi. Xing were surnames held by the immediate royal family. They generally are composed of a nü (女, meaning "female") radical which suggests that they originated from matriarchal societies based on maternal lineages.

Prior to the Qin Dynasty (3rd century BC) China was largely a feudal society. As fiefdoms were divided and subdivided among descendants, so additional sub-surnames known as shi were created to distinguish between different seniority of lineages among the nobles though in theory they shared the same ancestor. In this way, a nobleman would hold a shi and a xing. After the states of China were unified by Qin Shi Huang, surnames gradually devolved to the lower classes and the difference between xing and shi blurred.

Shi surnames, many of which survive to the present day, generally share twelve paths of origin:

  1. From xing: These were usually reserved for the central lineage of the royal family, with collateral lineages taking their own shi. Of the six or so common xing, only Jiang (姜) and Yao (姚) have survived as frequently occurring surnames.
  2. From state names: Many commoners took the name of their state, either to show their continuing allegiance or as a matter of national and ethnic identity. Common examples include Song (宋), Wu (吴), Chen (陈). Not surprisingly, due to the population size of the peasantry, these are some of the most common Chinese surnames.
  3. From the name of fiefs or place of origin. Fiefdoms were often granted to collateral branches of the aristocracy and it was natural as part of the process of sub-surnaming for their names to be used. An example is Di, Marquis of Ouyangting, whose descendants took the surname Ouyang. There are some two hundred examples of this identified, often of two-character surnames, but few have survived to the present.
  4. From the names of ancestors: Like the previous example, this was also a common origin with close to 500 or 600 examples, 200 of which are two-character surnames. Often an ancestor's style name would be used. For example, Yuan Taotu took the second character of his grandfather's style name Boyuan (伯爰) as his surname. Sometimes titles granted to ancestors could also be taken as surnames.
  5. From seniority within the family: In ancient usage, the characters of meng (孟), zhong (仲), shu (叔) and ji (季) were used to denote the first, second, third and fouth eldest sons in a family. These were sometimes adopted as surnames. Of these, Meng is the best known, being the surname of philosopher Mencius, for example.
  6. From occupation: These could arise from both official positions, as in the case of Sima (司马), originally akin to "Minister of War". They could also arise from more lowly occupations, as with Tao (陶), meaning "potter" or Wu (巫), meaning "shaman".
  7. From ethnic groups: Non-Chinese peoples in China sometimes took the name of their ethnic group as surname. The best example is Hu (胡), which originally referred to all "barbarian" groups on the northern frontier of China.

Distribution of surnames

Province Surnames
Guangdong Liang (梁), Luo (罗),
Guangxi Liang (梁), Lu (陆)
Fujian Zheng (郑)
Anhui Wang (汪)
Jiangsu Xu (徐), Zhu (朱)
Zhejiang Mao (毛),Shen (沈)
Jiangxi Hu (胡), Liao (廖);
Hubei Hu (胡)
Hunan Tan (谭);
Sichuan He (何), Deng (邓)
Guizhou Wu (吴)
Yunnan Yang (杨)
Henan Cheng (程)
Gansu Gao (高)
Ningxia Wan (万)
Shaanxi Xue (薛)
Qinghai Bao (鲍)
Xinjiang Ma (马)
Shandong Kong (孔)
Shanxi Dong (董) and Guo (郭)
Inner Mongolia Pan (潘)
Northeast China Yu (于)

Surnames are not evenly distributed throughout China's geography. In northern China, Wang (王) is the most common surname, being shared by 9.9% of the population. Next are Li (李), Zhang (张) and Liu (刘). In the south, Chen (陈) is the most common, being shared by 10.6% of the population. Next are Li (李), Huang (黄), Lin (林) and Zhang (张). Around the major crossing points of the Yangtze River, the most common surname is Li (李), taking up 7.7%, followed by Wang (王), Zhang (张), Chen (陈) and Liu (刘).

A 1987 study showed over 450 family names in common use in Beijing, but there were less than 300 family names in Fujian.[link]

A study by geneticist Yuan Yida has found that certain names appear most commonly in each province of China, as seen at right.

The 55th most common family name "Xiao" () appears to be very rare in Hong Kong. This is explained by the fact Hong Kong uses traditional Chinese characters not simplified Chinese characters. Originally, the surname 蕭 (Xiao) was rather common while the surname 肖 (Xiao) was extremely rare, if not non-existent (it is mentioned only sporadically in historical texts). The first round of simplification in 1956 simplified 蕭 into 萧, keeping 蕭/萧 and 肖 distinct. However the second-round in 1977 which has long been abolished, , merged 萧 and 肖 into 肖. Despite the retraction of the second round, some people have kept 肖 as their surname, so that there are now two separate surnames, 萧 and 肖.

Chén (trad , simp ) is perhaps the most common last name in Hong Kong and Macau (romanized as Chan) and is also common in Taiwan (romanized as Chen). Fang (), which is only the 47th most common overall, is much more common in San Francisco's Chinatown in the United States. As with the concentration of family names, this can also be explained statistically, as a person with an uncommon name could move to an unsettled area and leave this family name to large numbers of people.

After the Song Dynasty, surname distributions in China largely stabilised. Villages were often made up of individuals with the same surname, often with a common male ancestor. They usually intermarried with nearby villages, creating clusters of individuals with similar genetic background.

Surnames at present

Of the thousands of surnames which have been identified from historical texts prior to the Han Dynasty, most have either been lost or simplified. In recent centuries some two-character surnames have often dropped a character. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, moreover, some surnames have been graphically simplified.

Although there are thousands of Chinese family names, the 100 most common surnames, which together make up less than 5% of those in existence, are shared by 85% of the population. The three most common surnames in Mainland China are Li, Wang and Zhang, which make up 7.9%, 7.4% and 7.1% respectively. Together they number close to 300 million and are easily the most common surnames in the world.

In a 1990 study, the top 200 family names accounted for over 96% of a random sample of 174,900 persons, with over 500 other names accounting for the remaining 4%.[link] In a different study (1987), which combined data from Taiwan and mainland China (sample size of 570,000 persons), the top 19 names covered 55.6% [link], and the top 100 names covered 87% of the sample. Other data suggest that the top 50 names comprise 70% of the population.[link]

Most commonly occurring Chinese family names have only one character; however, about twenty double-character family names have survived into the modern time. Some famous ones include Sima (, simp. ), Zhuge (, simp. ), Ouyang or Au Yeung (, simp. , occasionally Romanized as O'Young, giving some Anglophones an Irish impression), and Szeto (in Cantonese) ( in pinyin: Situ). (There are family names with three or more characters, but those are not ethnically Han Chinese, for example, Aixinjueluo (, also romanized from the Manchu language as Aisin Gioro, which was the family name of the Manchu royal family of the Qing dynasty.)

Transliteration of Chinese family names (see List of common Chinese surnames) into foreign languages poses a number of problems. Chinese surnames are shared by people speaking a number of dialects and languages which often have different pronunciations of their surnames. The Chinese diaspora into all parts of the world resulted in the Romanization of the surnames based on different languages. As a result, it is common for the same surname to be transliterated differently. In certain dialects, different surnames could be homonyms so it is common for family names to appear ambiguous when transliterated. Example: Zheng can be converted into Teh, Tay, Tee, Zheng, Zeng, Chang, Cheng and Chung, (in pinyin Zheng, Zeng, Chang, Cheng are all different names).

Another problem when Chinese names are transliterated is sometimes a Chinese name (include given name) can happen to be identical to the spelling of an English word. This is generally not a problem for some Chinese surnames like 孙(means grandson), which will become Sun (although "sun" in pinyin is not pronounced the same as "sun" in English), or 宋(originally a name of a country in ancient China), which will become Song; For other Chinese surnames, the meaning will become a little unpleasant when written in English, such as 方 (Square ) will become Fang. Interestingly, non-mainland Chinese people (usually Cantonese speaking people) seem to be not very sensitive to these emergence of unpleasant meaning during transliteration of names. One example is the name of the famous actor 周润发, whose English name is usually written as Chow Yun-Fat. Another extreme instance was the name of a female professor in Singapore, whose name was miserally written in English to mean that eating feces is interesting ( the exact name is not quoted here for an obvious reason). This also tends to happen when Cantonese speaking people transliterate the English names of some companies or some financial institutions into Chinese. For example, the Rogers company was translated into 罗渣士, which clearly means "some scum from the Luos"(Luo is a Chinese surname). Another similar example is that the Chartered Bank is translated into 渣打 , which means "beaten scum" or "to beat the scum" depending how 渣打is interpretated.

Usage

In writing Chinese names, Chinese family names are placed before the given name, e.g. Cheung Kwok Wing. Hence the Western concept of first name and last name only creates confusion when used with Chinese names. In Westernized Asian countries or for those residing in the West, often a Western name is chosen, e.g. Leslie Cheung (張國榮). When the Western name and Chinese name are put together, it often becomes hard to tell what the family name is. Using Leslie Cheung as an example, some variants include:

Some publications and legal documents will print the family name in small capital letters to allow it to be easily distinguished, e.g. Leslie Cheung Kwok Wing. When no official Rominisation exists, translators often will use the transliteration best fit with the locale where the person is originated. For example, the pinyin transcription would be used for a person from Mainland China; Wade-Giles for someone from Taiwan; or a Cantonese-based Rominisation for someone from Hong Kong.

Chinese women usually retain their maiden names after marriage. Outside of Mainland China they will sometimes place their husbands' family names in front of theirs. For example, former Chief Secretary for Administration of Hong Kong, Mrs. Anson Chan is known as Chan Fang On-sang () where Fang is her maiden name. It is thus, technically possible for a married woman to have a six-character full name if both she and her husband have compounded surnames such as in this hypothetical example: 歐陽司徒美英 or Mrs. Au-Yeung Szeto Mei-ying. Most Hong Kong women retain their own surnames after marriage or choose to be known as Mrs. (husband's surname).

Many Chinese people who have different family names found themselves writing an identical family name in English. For example, Chinese family names such as 师 (teacher), 施 (carry out), 石 (stone), 史(history), 时(time) will all become "Shi" when written in English. A small number of such Chinese immigrants start to rewrite their family names according to the meaning instead of the homophonic pronunciation and identical transcription in English. For example, a "Mr.石" may turn his family into "Stone", i.e. "Mr. Stone" instead of "Mr. Shi".

A Note on Usage of Malaysian Chinese Names

In countries like Malaysia where legal documents (e.g. Passport) do not usually indicate SURNAME but simply NAME in one line; Chinese Names especially the ones with a European/Western/Christian Given Name that precedes the Chinese Name format can potentially puzzle or baffle authorities in Western Countries. Like the Hong Kong Hybrid System (see Usage), the Malaysian Chinese Name that includes a Western Given Name will appear as (using the Leslie Cheung example see Usage): "LESLIE CHEUNG KWOK WING", similarly in Singapore.Most likely than not the second part of this name "CHEUNG" is the SURNAME or FAMILY NAME and "LESLIE KWOK WING" the GIVEN NAMES. Or in another way of which is easily comprehended, some may appear as "CHEUNG KWOK WING @ LESLIE" or "CHEUNG KWOK WING @ LESLIE CHEUNG". Malaysian Chinese do not normally hyphenate their Chinese GIVEN NAMES. Therefore, for a Chinese Name that appears in Malaysian legal documents (using the Leslie Cheung example) the following provides an example how information should be entered in a form/ document issued by authorities in Western/ English Speaking countries (excludes Iceland):

''(the following provides both CORRECT and INCORRECT examples for entering information for Leslie's name in forms or documents issued by authorities in the Western World)

The CORRECT examples below:

''

The INCORRECT examples below:

Although, there are numerous authorities in the Western World that do comprehend this name convention, official guidelines (from the Malaysian Authorities) regarding this sub-category of Chinese Name is still unavailable as of the time of writing this article. It is indeed unfortunate that problems surrounding Malaysian Chinese Names with European/Western/Christian Given Name(s) are still persisting especially when personnels in the authorities are insistent that 'SURNAME or FAMILY NAME' are strictly/ literally 'LAST NAME' or for ethnic Chinese the 'FIRST NAME'.

Malaysian Chinese with European/Western/Christian Given Name(s) still run into difficulty in getting the various authorities in Western Countries to believe as to which part of their name constitute the FAMILY NAME/ SURNAME.

Using the Leslie Cheung example, Air Ticketing agents in Malaysia would normally recognise (unless advised otherwise) that CHEUNG is the SURNAME but would normally arrange the Chinese Given Names so that they precede the Western Name. Therefore an airline ticket issued in Malaysia for Leslie Cheung would have his name printed as 'CHEUNG/KWOKWINGLESLIE' (see also EXAMPLE A)

A Malaysian Chinese who is culturally aware of the Western Naming Convention would write his name (using the Leslie Cheung example) in a western environment as Leslie K.W. Cheung. Since the phrase 'Last Name' is used in the western world to connote Family Name/ Surname, a Malaysian Chinese who is culturally aware and compliant of the Western environment will without fail supply CHEUNG as his 'Last Name'. Here the phrase 'Last Name' does not operate on the literal sense (certainly not the last part of Leslie Cheung's name) but rather from a social context perspective. However many legal documents in the Western English-Speaking World today have consistently used the term 'Surname or Family Name' to ensure political correctness. Ethnic Chinese from countries that clearly indicates their Surname/ Family Name in their legal documents would not have to face this difficulty.

The sociological use of surnames

Throughout most of Chinese history, surnames have served sociological functions. Because of their association with the aristocratic elite in their early developments, surnames were often used as symbols of nobility. Thus nobles would use their surnames to be able to trace their ancestry and compete for seniority in terms of hereditary rank. Examples of early genealogies among the royalty can be found in Sima Qian's Historical Records, which contain tables recording the descent lines of noble houses called shibiao (世表).

Later, during the Han Dynasty, these tables were used by prominent families to glorify themselves and sometimes even to legitimise their political power. For example, Cao Pi, who forced the abdication of the last Han emperor in his favour, claimed descent from the Yellow Emperor. Chinese emperors sometimes passed their own surnames to subjects as honours. Unlike European practice in which some surnames are obviously noble, Chinese emperors and members of the royal family had regular surnames except in cases where they came from non-Han ethnic groups. This was a result of Chinese imperial theory in which a commoner could receive the Mandate of Heaven and become emperor. Upon becoming emperor, the emperor would retain his original surname. Also as a consequence, many people also had the same surname as the emperor, but had no direct relation to the royal family.

The Tang Dynasty was the last period when the great aristocratic families, mostly descended from the nobility of pre-Qin states, held significant centralised and regional power. The surname was used as a source of prestige and common alliegance. During the period a large number of genealogical records called pudie (譜牒) were compiled to trace the complex descent lines of clans and their marriage ties to other clans. A large number of these were collected by Ouyang Xiu in his New History of Tang.

During the Song Dynasty, ordinary clans began to organise themselves into corporate units and produce genealogies. This trend was led by the poet Su Shi and his father. As competition for resources and positions in the bureaucracy intensified, individuals used their common ancestry and surname to promote solidarity. They established schools to educate their sons and held common lands to aid disadvantaged families. Ancestral temples were also erected to promote surname identity. Clan cohesion was usually encouraged by successive imperial governments since it aided in social stability. During the Qing Dynasty surname associations often undertook extra-judicial roles, providing primitive legal and social security functions. They played important roles in the Chinese diaspora to South-East Asia and elsewhere, providing the infrastructure for the establishment of trading networks. In southern China, however, clans sometimes engaged in armed conflict in competition for land. Of course, clans continued the tradition of tracing their ancestry to the distant past as a matter of prestige. Most of these origin myths, though well established, are spurious.

As a result of the importance of surnames, rules and traditions regarding family and marriage grew increasingly complex. For example, in Taiwan, there is a clan with the so-called "double Liao" surname. The story is that the founder of the clan was adopted and so took the surname Liao, but in honor of his ancestors, he demanded that he be buried with the surname Chen. As a result, his descendants use the surname Liao while alive and the surname Chen after death. In some places, there are additional taboos against marriage between people of the same surname, considered to be closely related. Conversely, in some areas, there are different clans with the same surname which are not considered to be related, but even in these cases surname exogamy is generally practiced.

Surname identity and solidarity has declined markedly since the 1930s with the decline of Confucianism and later, the rise of Communism in Mainland China. During the Cultural Revolution, surname culture was actively persecuted by the government with the destruction of ancestral temples and genealogies. Moreover, the influx of Western culture and forces of globalisation have also contributed to erode the previous sociological uses of the Chinese surname.

Differences between Xing and Shi (姓 vs. 氏)

Although they are used interchangeably now, xing and shi were not the same. One's family name is his/her xing, and everyone who has that family name belongs in the same shi. Basically, a shi is an organisation consisting of families with the same xing.

See also

External links

 

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