Concerto

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The term concerto usually refers to a musical work in which one solo instrument is contrasted with an orchestra. The concerto as a form arose in the Baroque period side by side with the concerto grosso which contrasted a small group of instruments with the rest of the orchestra. While the concerto grosso remained almost exclusively a Baroque form, the solo concerto has continued as a vital musical force to this day. This page will concentrate on the development of the solo concerto.

The etymology of the word ‘concerto’ is somewhat confusing as the Italian ‘concertare’ can mean ‘to contend, dispute’ but it also has the contrary meaning of ‘to agree’. The idea of two opposing forces is inherent in the use of the term.

Contents

1 The Baroque concerto
2 The Classical concerto
3 The Romantic concerto

3.1 Violin concertos
3.2 Cello Concertos
3.3 Piano concertos
3.4 Small-scaled works

4 The concerto in the 20th century
5 Media
6 See also
7 References

The Baroque concerto

In the late 16th century there is often no clear distinction between ‘concerto’ and ‘sinfonia’. Giovanni Gabrieli published motets using either of these terms indiscriminately. Viadana’s Cento concerti ecclesiastici (1602) are examples of the early concerto for limited forces: he uses one to four voices with continuo, composed in such a way that the works can still be performed if one or more of the voices is absent. The word ‘concerto’ was commonly used in Italy throughout the 17th century to describe vocal music with instrumental accompaniment. From about 1675 composers started to write works for divided orchestra which were ‘concerti grossi’. The group of soloists in these works were referred to as the ‘concertino’. In the concerti grossi of Arcangelo Corelli and Giuseppe Torelli the solo violin is sometimes given extended solo passages. These are the beginnings of the solo concerto.

The first major influences on the concerto were made by Antonio Vivaldi who established the ritornello form in which solo passages alternate with orchestral tutti which often repeat the same material, giving unity to the movement.. He established the three movement form (fast – slow – fast) which has been the norm for the solo concerto ever since. He wrote several hundred concertos, the most famous being the group of four violin concertos entitled The Four Seasons.

By Johann Sebastian Bach's time the concerto as a polyphonic instrumental form was thoroughly established. The term frequently appears in the autograph title-pages of his church cantatas, even when the cantata contains no instrumental prelude. Although his six Brandenburg concertos are often thought of as concerti grossi, no 4 has a very prominent violin part while the other two soloists are reduced to a much smaller role. No 5 is in effect a solo harpsichord concerto. The origins of the keyboard concerto are to be found in those by Bach. He also wrote about six solo violin concertos, only two of which are extent, and a concerto for two violins and orchestra. Bach’s concertos are modelled on those of Vivaldi, but expand the form, giving a coherent motivic unity to the contrapuntal textures of each movement. Bach’s sons continued to write concertos in their father’s tradition. They are the best in the genre which link the concerto of the Baroque period with that of Mozart. C.P.E.Bach’s keyboard concertos contain some brilliant soloistic writing. Some of them contain movements which run into one another without a break, and there are frequent cross-movement thematic references.

The Classical concerto

Mozart, as a boy, made arrangements for harpsichord and orchestra of 3 sonata movements by Johann Christian Bach. By the time he was twenty he was able to write concerto ritornelli that gave the orchestra admirable opportunity for asserting its character in an exposition with some five or six sharply contrasted themes before the soloist enters to elaborate on the material. He wrote one concerto each for flute, oboe, clarinet and bassoon, four for horn, one for flute and harp and a sinfonia concertante for violin and viola. They all exploit the characteristics of the solo instrument brilliantly, even in cases when it is not his favourite instrument. His five violin concertos, written in quick succession, show a number of influences, notably Italian and Austrian. Several passages have leanings towards folk music as manifested in the Austrian serenades. However, it was in his 23 original piano concertos that he excelled himself. It is conventional to state that the first movements of concertos from the Classical period onwards follow the structure of sonata form. Mozart, however, treats sonata form in his concerto movements with so much freedom that any broad classification becomes impossible. Some of the themes heard in the exposition may not be heard again. The piano, at its entry, may introduce entirely new material. There may even be new material in the so-called recapitulation section which in effect becomes a free fantasia. Towards the end of the first movement, and sometimes in other movements too, there is a traditional place for an improvised cadenza. The slow movements may be based on sonata form or abridged sonata form, but some of them are romances. The finales may be rondos, or even theme with variations.

Beethoven’s five piano concertos increase the technical demands made on the soloists. The last two are particularly remarkable, integrating the concerto into a large symphonic structure with movements that frequently run into one another. His Piano Concerto no 4 starts with a statement by the piano after which the orchestra magically enters in a foreign key, continuing with the opening tutti. The work has an essentially lyrical character. The slow movement is a dramatic dialogue between the soloist and the orchestra. Concerto no 5 has the basic rhythm of a Viennese military march. There is no lyrical second subject but, rather, continuous development of the opening material. Beethoven’s Violin Concerto is unique in its scale and melodic qualities. He also wrote a Triple Concerto for piano, violin, cello and orchestra.

The Romantic concerto

Violin concertos

In the 19th century the concerto as a vehicle for virtuosic display flourished as never before. It was the age in which the artist was seen as hero, to be worshipped and adulated with rapture. Early Romantic traits can be found in the violin concertos of Viotti, but it is Spohr’s twelve violin concertos, written between 1802 and 1827 which truly embrace the Romantic spirit with their melodic as well as their dramatic qualities. Recitative elements are often used, showing the influence of Italian opera on purely instrumental forms. Mendelssohn opens his violin concerto (1844) straight away with the singing qualities of the violin solo. Even later passage work is dramatic and recitative-like rather than merely virtuoso. The wind state the lyrical, second subject over a low pedal G on the violin, a novel idea. The cadenza, placed at the start of the recapitulation, is fully written out and integrated into the structure.

The great violin virtuoso Niccolò Paganini was a legendary figure who, as a composer, exploited the technical potential of his instrument to its very limits. Each one exploits rhapsodic ideas but is unique in its own form. The Belgian violinist Henri Vieuxtemps contributed several works to this form. Édouard Lalo’s Symphonie Espagnole (1875) displays virtuoso writing with a Spanish flavour. Max Bruch wrote three violin concertos, but it is the no 1 in G minor which has remained a firm favourite in the repertoire. The first movement relates so closely to the two remaining movements that it functions like an operatic prelude. Tchaikovsky’s violin concerto (1878) is a powerful work which succeeds in being lyrical as well as superbly virtuosic. In the same year Brahms wrote his violin concerto for the violinist Joseph Joachim. This work makes new demands on the player, so much so that when it was first written it was referred to as a ‘concerto against the violin’. The first movement brings the concerto into the realm of symphonic development. The second movement is traditionally lyrical, and the finale is based on a lively Hungarian theme.

Cello Concertos

Following on from the classical examples of Luigi Boccherini the concertos of Robert Schumann, Carl Reinecke, David Popper and Julius Klengel focus on the lyrical qualities of the instrument. Tchaikovsky’s contribution to the genre is not a concerto but a series of variations on a Rococo theme. Brahms contributed to the repertoire with a Double Concerto for violin, cello and orchestra. Dvořák’s cello concerto ranks among the supreme examples from the later part of the century.

Piano concertos

The piano concertos of Mendelssohn, Field and Hummel provide a link from the Classical form to the Romantic concertos. Frederick Chopin wrote two piano concertos in which the orchestra is very much relegated to an accompanying role. Robert Schumann, despite being a pianist-composer, wrote a piano concerto in which virtuosity is never allowed to dominate the essential lyrical quality of the work. The gentle, expressive melody heard at the beginning on woodwind and horns (after the piano’s heralding introductory chords) bears the material for most of the argument in the first movement. In fact, argument in the traditional developmental sense is replaced by a kind of variation technique in which soloist and orchestra interweave their ideas.

It was Franz Liszt whose mastery of piano technique matched that of Paganini for the violin. His two concertos left a deep impression on the style of piano concerto writing, influencing Anton Rubinstein and especially Tchaikovsky, whose First Piano Concerto’s rich chordal opening is justly famous. Grieg’s concerto likewise begins in a striking manner after which it continues in a lyrical vein.

Brahms's first piano concerto in D minor (pub 1861) was the result of an immense amount of work on a mass of material originally intended for a symphony. His Piano Concerto no 2 (1881) has four movements and is written on a larger scale than any classical concerto hitherto. Like the Violin Concerto, it is symphonic in proportions.

Small-scaled works

Besides the usual three-movement works with the title ‘concerto’ many 19th century composers wrote shorter pieces for solo instrument and orchestra which often have descriptive titles. Schumann liked titles such as Concertstück and Phantasie. Liszt wrote the Totentanz for piano and orchestra, a paraphrase of the Dies Irae. Max Bruch wrote a popular Scottish Fantasy for violin and orchestra, César Franck wrote Les Djinns and Variations symphoniques and Gabriel Fauré wrote a Ballade for piano and orchestra.

The concerto in the 20th century

Many of the concertos written in the early 20th century belong more to the late Romantic school than any modernistic movement. Masterpieces were written by Edward Elgar (for violin and for cello), Sergei Rachmaninoff (4 piano concertos), Jean Sibelius (for violin), Frederick Delius (for violin, for cello, for piano and a Double Concerto for violin and cello), Karol Szymanowski (2 for violin) and Richard Strauss (2 horn concertos).

The two great innovators of early 20th century music, Schoenberg and Stravinsky, both wrote violin concertos. The material in Schoenberg’s concerto, like that in Berg’s, is linked by the twelve-tone serial method. Schoenberg’s Piano Concerto (1942) is unified into one movement. Bartok wrote two important concertos for violin and three for piano which show the various stages in his musical development. William Walton wrote concertos for violin, viola, and cello and Prokofiev produced two violin concertos and five piano concertos which he himself performed. Carl Nielsen contributed three important works to the genre (for flute, clarinet and violin), and Paul Hindemith’s concertos hark back to the forms of the 19th century, even if the harmonic language has moved forward. Britten’s concertos for piano (1938) and violin (1939) are mature works from his early period, while the so-called Cello Symphony (1963) gained its title to emphasize the equal importance of soloist and orchestra.

Today the concerto tradition has been continued by composers such as Hans Werner Henze, György Ligeti, and especially Peter Maxwell Davies, whose series of Strathclyde Concertos exploit some of the instruments less familiar as soloists such as double bass (1992) and bassoon (1993).

Media

[Vivaldi Spring mvt 1] ([file info])
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References

The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians; ed. Stanley Sadie; 1980; ISBN 1-56159-174-2
The concerto; ed. Ralph Hill, Pelican 1952

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