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Crucifixion

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"Crucify" redirects here. For the song, see Crucify (song).
Artistic depiction of the crucifixion of Jesus.
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Artistic depiction of the crucifixion of Jesus.

Crucifixion is an ancient method of execution, where the victim was tied or nailed to a large wooden cross and left to hang there until dead. It is widely considered a not uncommon but extremely dishonorable and painful form of judicial execution in the Roman Empire, though similar methods were employed in other ancient cultures such as Persia. Crucifixion has special significance in Christianity, which holds that Jesus was crucified as the final part of the atonement, but within three days he was resurrected. Because of this the Christian cross or crucifix has become the main symbol of Christianity (an alternative clandestine symbol since Roman persecution was the Ichthys).

Crucifixion was used by the Romans until about AD 313, when Christianity was legalized in the Roman Empire and soon became the official state religion. However, it has been used in various places in modern times.

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Details of crucifixion

Crucifixion was rarely performed for ritual or symbolic reasons, but usually to provide a particularly painful (hence the term excruciating), gruesome (disuading) and public (hence the metonymic expression "to nail to the cross") death, using whatever means were most expedient for that goal. Widely different crucifixion methods varied considerably with location and time period.

Two methods were followed in the infliction of the punishment of crucifixion. In both of these the criminal was first stripped naked, and bound to an upright stake, where he was scourged. After this, the victim was dressed again, and if able was made to drag the cross (usually weighing 150 lb or more) to the place of execution. At this point he was again stripped naked, and was either fastened to it, or impaled upon it, and left to die. In this method, the crux simplex of Justus Lipsius, a single stake was used.

The other method is described in the New Testament account of the crucifixion of Jesus. In such a case, after the scourging at the stake, the criminal was made to carry a gibbet, formed of two transverse bars of wood, to the place of execution, and he was then fastened to it by iron nails driven through the outstretched arms and through the ankles. Sometimes this was done as the cross lay on the ground, and it was then lifted into position. In other cases the criminal was made to ascend by a ladder, and was then fastened to the cross. Probably the feebleness, or state of collapse, from which the criminal must often have suffered, had much to do in deciding this.

It is not quite clear which of these two plans was followed in the case of the crucifixion of Christ, but the more general opinion has been that he was nailed to the cross on the ground, and that it was then lifted into position. The contrary opinion, has, however, prevailed to some extent, and there are representations of the crucifixion which depict him as mounting a ladder placed against the cross. Such representations may, however, have been due to a pious desire, on the part of their authors, to emphasize the voluntary offering of himself as the Saviour of the World, rather than as being intended for actual pictures of the scene itself. It may be noted, however, that among the Emblems of the Passion, as they are called, and which were very favorite devices in the middle ages, the ladder is not infrequently found in conjunction with the crown of thorns, nails, spear and other related items.

Cross shape

The horizontal beam of the cross, or transom, could be fixed at the very top of the vertical piece, the upright, to form a capital T called a tau cross or Saint Anthony's cross. According to some unlikely theories, this shape had its origin in ancient Babylonia as the symbol of the god Tammuz, being in the shape of the mystic Tau, the Greek initial of his name. The horizontal beam could also be affixed at some distance below the top, often in a mortise, to form a lowercase t-shape called a Latin cross, and a sign was fastened to the top with the name of the victim, used for executing kings. To mock Christ as "King of the Jews," tradition holds that Christ was crucified on such a cross. Alternatively, the cross could consist of two diagonal beams to form an X, alternatively known as the decussate cross (after decem, Latin for 'ten', 'X' being the Roman numeral for ten) or as Saint Andrew's cross.

Additionally, evidence supports that malefactors were sometimes nailed to a "crux simplex," a single, upright wooden stake, with no transom at all, which was often used for ancient ordeals similar to crucifixion. The original Greek word "stauros," typically translated "cross," actually indicates a simple upright pole or stake. Similarly, the Greek word "xy'lon," also translated "cross", literally means "a stick, club, or tree" (as is the official belief of the Jehovah's Witnesses). It is believed that by the middle of the 3rd century AD, pagans received into the churches sometimes retained their pagan signs and symbols, hence the Tau or T, with the cross-piece lowered, is said to have been adopted to stand for the cross of Christ. Of course, archaeological and literary evidence discussed elsewhere in this article supports that actual crosses were indeed used as a very real means of execution, but certain hagiographies concur with occasional variations in shape, e.g. upside down or X-shaped (saltire). Also, prior to Jesus' crucifixion, in the Roman territory of Judea, criminals and rebels were put to death by crucifixion, and documents suggest that the cross used was a Y shape, each arm going up on one extension of the Y.

Location of the nails

For the sake of expediency, the victim was probably affixed to the cross by ropes, nails, or some combination of the two. In popular depictions of crucifixion (possibly derived from a literal reading of the translated description in the Gospel of John, of Jesus' wounds being "in the hands"), the victim is shown supported only by nails driven straight through the feet and the palms of the hands, which is possible, if there was a foot-rest to relieve the weight; on their own, the hands could not support the full body weight.

Another possibility, that does not require tying, is that the nails were inserted just above the wrist, between the two bones of the forearm (the radius and the ulna). The nails could also be driven through the wrist, in a space between four carpal bones (which is the location shown in the Shroud of Turin). As some historians have suggested, the Gospel word χειρ (cheir) that is translated as "hand" may have in fact included everything below the mid-forearm. Indeed, Acts 12:7 uses this word to report chains falling off from Peter's "hands", although the chains would be around what we would call "wrists". This shows that the semantic range of χειρ is wider than the English "hand", and can incorporate nails through the wrist.

Another possibility, suggested by Frederick Zugibe, is that the nails may have been driven in on an angle, entering in the palm in the crease that delineates the bulky region at the base of the thumb, and exiting in the wrist, passing through the carpal tunnel.

A sedile, or a foot-rest, was often attached to the cross, for the purpose of taking the man's weight off the wrists. This was most likely a simple peg or slab of wood, upon which the victim would rest the feet.

A new study and a documentary on the [National Geographic Channel's "Quest for Truth: The Crucifixion,"] as well as [a brief news article] on the experiment and the documentary, have shown that a person can be suspended by the wrists. Nailing the feet to the side of the cross relieves strain on the wrists by placing most of the weight on the lower body. The palms were a likely place for the nails, as that would cause the maximum amount of pain and trauma.

Cause of death

Death could come in hours or days, depending on exact methods, the health of those crucified, and environmental circumstances.

A theory attributed to Pierre Barbet holds that the typical cause of death was asphyxiation. He conjectured that when the whole body weight was supported by the stretched arms, the victim would have severe difficulty exhaling, due to hyper-expansion of the lungs. The victim would therefore have to draw himself up by his arms, or have his feet supported by tying or by a wood block. Indeed, Roman executioners were said to break the victim's legs, after he had hung for some time, in order to hasten his death. Once deprived of support and unable to lift himself, the victim would die within a few minutes.

If death did not come from asphyxiation, it could result from a number of other causes, including physical shock caused by the scourging that preceded the crucifixion, and the nailing itself, dehydration and exhaustion.

Experiments by Frederick Zugibe have revealed that, when suspended with arms at 60° to 70° from the vertical, test subjects had no difficulty breathing, only rapidly-increasing discomfort and pain. This would correspond to the Roman use of crucifixion as a prolonged, agonizing, humiliating death. Zugibe claims that the breaking of the crucified victim's legs to hasten death, mentioned in the Gospel accounts, was done in order to cause severe traumatic shock or death by fat embolism, and only as a coup de grace. Crucifixion on a single pole with no transom, with hands affixed over one's head, would precipitate rapid asphyxiation if no block was provided to stand on, or once the legs were broken.

It was, however, possible to survive crucifixion, and there are records of people who did (as with hanging in the West).

Archeological evidence for ancient crucifixion

Despite the fact that the ancient Jewish historian Josephus, as well as other sources, refer to the crucifixion of thousands of people by the Romans, there is only a single archeological discovery of a crucified body dating back to the Roman Empire around the time of Jesus (discovered, incidentally, in Jerusalem). It is not surprising that there is only one such discovery, because a crucified body was usually left to decay on the cross and therefore would not be preserved. The only reason these archeological remains were preserved was because family members gave this particular crucified criminal a customary burial.

The remains were found accidentally in an ossuary with the crucified man’s name on it, “Yehohanan, the son of Hagakol.” The ossuary contained a heel with a nail driven through its side, indicating that the heels may have been driven through the sides of the tree (one on the left side, one on the right side, and not with both feet together in front). The nail had olive wood on it indicating that he was crucified on a cross made of olivewood or on an olive tree. Since olive trees are not very tall, this would suggest that victims were crucified at eye level. Additionally, the piece of olive wood was located between the heel and the head of the nail, presumably to keep the victim from freeing his foot by sliding it over the nail. His legs were found broken. It is thought that since in Roman times iron was expensive, the nails were removed from the dead body to cut the costs, which would help to explain why only one has been found, as the back of the nail was bent in such a way that it couldn't be removed.

Important references for the ancient practice of crucifixion and an examination of archeological evidence:

History of crucifixion

Persia, Alexander and other pre-Roman states

Punishment by crucifixion was widely employed in ancient times. It was used by Assyria, Pharaonic Egypt, Achaemenid Persia, the Greeks, Carthaginians, Macedonians, and, from very early times, by the Romans.

The earliest recording of a crucifixion was in 519 BC when Darius I, the Persian King of Kings, crucified 3000 political opponents in Babylon.

It has been thought, too, that crucifixion was also used by the Jews themselves, and that there is an allusion to it (Deuteronomium xxi. 22, 23) as a punishment to be inflicted, though this reference is commonly associated with lynching.

There is evidence that captured pirates were crucified in the port of Athens around the 7th Century BC. Alexander the Great is reputed to have executed 2000 survivors from his siege of the Phoenician city of Tyre, as well as the doctor who unsuccessfully treated Alexander's friend Hephaestion.

Some historians have also conjectured that Alexander crucified Callisthenes, his official historian and biographer, for objecting to Alexander's adoption of the Persian ceremony of royal adoration.

In Carthage, crucifixion was an established mode of execution, which could even be imposed on a general for suffering a major defeat.

Roman Empire

In Romans the custom of crucifixion may have developed out of the primitive custom of arbori suspendere, hanging -nailed or bound- on the arbor infelix, "unfortunate tree" which was dedicated to the gods of the nether world (Seneca ("Epistola," 101) still calls the cross infelix lignum, "unfortunate wood"; trees were often used for crucifying convicts, e.g. Tertullian, "Apologia," viii. 16), and/or be adopted from Carthage, and was used for slaves, rebels, pirates and especially-despised enemies and criminals. Therefore crucifixion was considered a most way to die. Condemned Roman citizens were usually exempt from crucifixion (like feudal nobles from hanging, dying more honorably by decapitation) except for major crimes against the state, such as high treason.

The Romans used it for the crimes of piracy, highway robbery, assassination, forgery, false testimony, mutiny, high treason and rebellion. Notorious mas crucificions followed the Third Servile War (the slave rebellion under Spartacus), the Roman Civil War and the destruction of Jerusalem.

Josephus tells a story of the Romans crucifying people along the walls of Jerusalem. He also says that the Roman soldiers would amuse themselves by crucifying criminals in different positions. In Roman-style crucifixion, the victim took days to die slowly from suffocation—caused by the victim's blood-supply slowly draining away, to a quantity insufficient to supply the required oxygen to vital organs. The dead body was left up for vultures and other birds to consume.

The goal of Roman crucifixion was not just to kill the criminal, but also to mutilate and dishonour the body of the condemned. In ancient tradition, an honourable death required burial; leaving a body on the cross, so as to mutilate it and prevent its burial, was a grave dishonour for the victim.

Under ancient Roman penal practice, crucifixion was not only a means of execution, but also a means of exhibiting the criminal’s low social status. It was the most dishonourable death imaginable, originally reserved for slaves, hence still called "supplicium servil" by Seneca, later extended to provincial freedmen of obscure station ("humiles"). The elite of Roman society (only about 10% of the population) were almost never subject to corporal punishments; instead, they were fined or exiled. Josephus mentions Jews of high rank who were crucified, but this was to point out that their status had been taken away from them. Control of one’s own body was vital in the ancient world. Capital punishment took away control over one’s own body, thereby implying a loss of status and honour. The Romans often broke the prisoner's legs to hasten death, and usually forbade burial.

A cruel prelude was scourging, which would cause the victim to lose a large amount of blood, and approach a state of shock. The convict then usually had to carry the horizontal beam (patibulum in Latin) to the place of execution, but not necessarily the whole cross. Crucifixion was typically carried out by specialized teams, consisting of a commanding centurion and four soldiers. When it was done in an established place of execution, the vertical beam (stipes) could even be permanently embedded in the ground. The victim was usually stripped naked -- the New Testament gospels, dated to around the same time as Josephus, describe soldiers gambling for the robes of Jesus.

The "nails" were tapered iron spikes approximately 5 to 7 inch (13 to 18 cm) long, with a square shaft 3/8 inch (1 cm) across. In some cases, the nails were gathered afterwards and used as healing amulets.

Emperor Constantine, the first Emperor known to receive a Christian baptism, abolished crucifixion in the Roman Empire at the end of his reign.

Crucifixion in the Qur'an

The Muslim Qur'an mentions crucifixion several times. In Surah 7:124, Pharaoh, around 1500-1200 BC, says that he will crucify his chief wizards. This would be the first mention of anyone crucifying someone before 519 BC. Also, Surah 12:41 mentions Joseph saying that the Pharaoh of the time (about 800-1100 BC) would crucify one of his prisoners.

And the wizards fell down prostrate, crying: We believe in the Lord of the Worlds, The Lord of Moses and Aaron. Pharaoh said: Ye believe in Him before I give you leave! Lo! this is the plot that ye have plotted in the city that ye may drive its people hence. But ye shall come to know! Surely I shall have your hands and feet cut off upon alternate sides. Then I shall crucify you every one. Surah 7:120-124
O my two fellow-prisoners! As for one of you, he will pour out wine for his lord to drink; and as for the other, he will be crucified so that the birds will eat from his head. Thus is the case judged concerning which ye did inquire. Surah 12:41

Japan

Tokugawa Shogunate

Crucifixion was used in Japan before and during the Tokugawa Shogunate. It was called Haritsuke in Japanese. The victim—usually a sentenced criminal—was hoisted upon a T-shaped cross. Then, executioners killed him with spears. The body was left to hang for a time before burial.

In 1597, twenty-six Christians were nailed to crosses at Nagasaki, Japan. Among those executed were Paul Miki and Pedro Bautista, a Spanish Franciscan who had worked about ten years in the Philippines.

Modern death on the cross

  • During World War I, there were persistent rumors that German soldiers had crucified a Canadian soldier on a tree or barn door with bayonets or combat knives. The event was initially reported in 1915 by Private George Barrie of the 1st Canadian Division.
    • 



    Modern crucifixions without death
    

    Crucifixion as a devotional practice
    
Since at least the mid-1800s, a group of Catholic flagellants in New Mexico called Hermanos de Luz ("Brothers of Light") have annually conducted reenactments of Jesus Christ's crucifixion during Holy Week, where a penitent is tied—but not nailed—to a cross. 
Some very devout Catholics are voluntarily, non-lethally crucified for a limited time on Good Friday, to imitate the suffering of Jesus Christ. A notable example is the ceremonial re-enactment that has been performed yearly in the town of Iztapalapa, on the outskirts of Mexico City, since 1833. [link]
    

Devotional crucifixions are also common in the Philippines,  even driving nails through the hands (e.g. a man vowed to do it 15 times after a difficult childbirth). In San Pedro Cutad, devotee Ruben Enaje has been crucified 20 times, as of 2006, during Passion Week celebrations. [link]
[link] 
    

In many cases the person portraying Jesus is previously subjected to flagellation (e.g. flailing) and wears a crown of thorns. Sometimes there is a whole passion play, sometimes only the mortification of the flesh.
    


    Parody
    

    

    Crucifixion (Hypercubic Body) by Salvador Dali.

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Crucifixion (Hypercubic Body) by Salvador Dali.
    

    

    

In a more jocular context, the victim of a prank (such as a bridegroom in 'macho' circles where he is traditionally abused at the end of his stag night) or of hazing may be bound to a cross as a variation of treeing.
    

On October 26, 1996, a mock crucifixion was staged at an Extreme Championship Wrestling show at the ECW Arena at a show titled "High Incident". In this mock crucifixion, ECW World Heavyweight Champion Raven tied Sandman to a cross and placed a barbed wire crown (mocking the Crown of Thorns) on Sandman's head. The next day, ECW and Raven apologized for the incident. This incident was instrumental in Kurt Angle leaving ECW, with Angle also threatening a lawsuit against Paul Heyman if Angle was associated in any way with that particular show.
    

On a taped edition of WWF Monday Night Raw which aired on December 8, 1998 (the episode was taped on December 2), The Undertaker handcuffed "Stone Cold" Steve Austin crucifix-style to the Undertaker's symbol, which was a combination of a shovel, pick, and sickle (the tools of a real undertaker); the combination resembled a cross. This causes announcer Jim Ross to proclaim "Austin has been crucified!". However, later that week, Ross suffered a case of Bells palsy, and WWF fans had already started complaining about the incident. To save face, the WWF edited out all audio and video footage of Jim Ross from that episode and had Michael Cole and Jerry Lawler provide post-production commentary. In addition, when the crucifixion angle played, Cole said "Austin has been tied to the Undertaker's symbol!". On the Monday Night Raw that aired the Monday prior to WWF Over the Edge 1999, the Undertaker attempted to mock-crucify Austin again, but Austin reversed it, causing the Undertaker to be crucified. The WWF, which has since become the WWE, has not staged a mock-crucifixion since.
    

Crucifixion was also parodied in The Life of Brian.
    

Marilyn Manson has parodied the crucifixion of Jesus several times in videos such as "I don't like the Drugs but the drugs like me" and "Coma White"
    


    Famous crucifixions
    


    

    See also
    

    



    


    Footnotes
    

    


    Sources and External links
    

    


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