Definitions of fascism
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Definition Definitions of fascism Varieties and derivatives of fascism Italian fascism Nazism Neo-Fascism Rexism Falangism Ustaše Clerical fascism Austrofascism Crypto-fascism Japanese fascism Greek fascism Brazilian Integralism Fascist political parties and movements Fascism as an international phenomenon List of fascist movements by country
Fascism in history
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What constitutes fascism and fascist governments is a highly disputed subject that has proved complicated and contentious. Historians, political scientists, and other scholars have engaged in long and furious debates concerning the exact nature of fascism and its core tenets.
Most scholars agree that a fascist regime is foremost an authoritarian form of government, although not all authoritarian regimes are fascist. Authoritarianism is thus a defining characteristic, but most scholars will say that more distinguishing traits are needed to make an authoritarian regime fascist.
Similarly, fascism as an ideology is also hard to define. Some authors have pointed out that Italian Fascism constituted an incoherent and unintelligible justification of the actions of Benito Mussolini ex post.
This article strives to bring together various definitions of fascism.
Benito Mussolini
Benito Mussolini, Il Duce, dictator of Italy before and in the Second World War, wrote (although Giovanni Gentile is claimed to be the actual writer) in 1932 an entry for the Enciclopedia Italiana, The Doctrine of Fascism.About the Fascist State he had to say:
A full elaboration of Mussolini's definition can be found in the article Doctrine of Fascism.
Kevin Passmore/Ernesto Laclau/Roger Eatwell
Kevin Passmore, a lecturer in History at Cardiff University, gives a definition of fascism in his book Fascism: A Very Short Introduction. The definition he gives is directly decended from the view put forth by Ernesto Laclau and is essentially identical with the definition given by Roger EatwellKevin Passmore, Fascism: A Very Short Introduction, pages 25-31. Oxford University Press, 2002.
The definition he gives is as follows:
Robert Paxton
Robert O. Paxton, a professor emeritus at Columbia University, defines fascism in his book The Anatomy of Fascism as:
Umberto Eco
In a 1995 essay "Eternal Fascism" [Umberto Eco: Eternal Fascism, The New York Review of Books, June 22, 1995], the Italian writer and academic Umberto Eco attempts to list general properties of fascist ideolgy. He claims that it is not possible to organise these into a coherent system, but that " it is enough that one of them be present to allow fascism to coagulate around it". He uses the term "Ur-fascism" as a generic description of different historical forms of fascism.
The features of fascism he lists are as follows:
- "The Cult of Tradition", combining cultural syncretism with a rejection of modernism (often disguised as a rejection of capitalism).
- "The Cult of Action for Action's Sake", which dicatates that action is of value in itself, and should be taken without intellectual reflection. This, says Eco, is connected with anti-intellectualism and irrationalism, and often manifests in attacks on modern culture and science.
- "Disagreement is Treason" - fascism devalues intellectual discourse and critical reasoning as barriers to action.
- "Fear of Difference", which fascism seeks to exploit and exacerbate, often in the form of racism or an appeal against foreigners and immigrants.
- "Appeal to a Frustrated Middle Class", fearing economic pressure from the demands and aspirations of lower social groups.
- "Obsession With a Plot" and the hyping-up of an enemy threat. This often involves an appeal to xenophobia or the identification of an internal security threat. He cites Pat Robertson's book The New World Order as a prominent example of a plot obsession.
- "Pacifism is Trafficking With the Enemy" because "Life is Permanent Warfare" - there must always be an enemy to fight.
- "Contempt for the Weak" - although a fascist society is elitist, everybody in the society is educated to become a hero.
- "Selective Populism" - the People have a common will which is not delegated, but is interpreted by a leader. This may involve doubt being cast upon a democratic institution, because "it no longer represents the Voice of the People".
- "Newspeak" - fascism employs and promotes an impoverished vocabulary in order to limit critical reasoning.
Fascism as vague epithet
Some have argued that the term "fascism" has become hopelessly vague in the years following World War II, and that today it is little more than a pejorative epithet used by supporters of various political views to attempt to discredit their opponents. This view dates back to George Orwell, British writer and author of 1984 and Animal Farm, who famously remarked:
References
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