English language learning and teaching

Encyclopedia : E : EN : ENG : English language learning and teaching

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ESL (English as a second language), ESOL (English for speakers of other languages) and EFL (English as a foreign language) all refer to the use or study of English by speakers of other languages. The precise usage, including the different use of the terms ESL and ESOL in different countries, is described below. These terms are most commonly used in relation to teaching and learning English, but they may also used in relation to demographic information.

ELT (English language teaching) is a widely-used teacher-centred term, as in the English language teaching divisions of large publishing houses, ELT training, etc. The abbreviations TESL (teaching English as a second language), TESOL (teaching English for speakers of other languages) and TEFL (teaching English as a foreign language) are all also used.

Other terms used in this field include EAL (English as an additional language), ESD (English as a second dialect), EIL (English as an international language), ELF (English as a ­lingua franca), ESP (English for special purposes, or English for specific purposes), EAP (English for academic purposes), and ELL (English language learner). A somewhat similary term, LEP (Limited English Proficiency), is also used in this field.

Terminology and types

The many acronyms used in the field of English teaching and learning may be confusing. English is a language with great reach and influence; it is taught all over the world under many different circumstances. In English-speaking countries, English language teaching has essentially evolved in two broad directions: instruction for people who intend to stay in the country and those who don't. These divisions have grown firmer as the instructors of these two "industries" have used different terminology, formed separate professional associations, followed distinct training qualifications, and so on. Crucially, these two arms have very different funding structures (public in the former and private in the latter) and to some extent this influences the way schools are established and classes are held. Matters are further complicated by the fact that the United States and Britain, both major engines of the language, describe these categories in different terms: as many eloquent users of the language have observed, "England and America are two countries divided by a common language." (Attributed to Winston Churchill, George Bernard Shaw, and Oscar Wilde.) The following technical definitions may therefore be ambiguous or have their currency contested.

EFL indicates the use of English in a non-English-speaking region. Study can occur either in the student's home country, as part of the normal school curriculum or otherwise, or, for the more privileged minority, in an anglophone country which they visit as a sort of educational tourist, partiuclarly before or after graduating from university. TEFL is the teaching of English as a foreign language; note that this sort of instruction can take place in any country, English-speaking or not. Typically, EFL is learned either to pass exams as a necessary part of one's education, or for career progression while working for an organisation or business with an international focus. EFL may be part of the state school curriculum in countries where English has no special status (as is the case in most of the European Union); it may also be supplemented by private lessons. Teachers of EFL generally assume that students are literate in their mother tongue.

The other broad grouping is the use of English within an English-speaking region, generally by refugees, immigrants and their children. It includes the use of English in countries, often former British colonies, where English is a dominant language even if it is not spoken as a mother tongue by the majority of the population. In the US, Canada and Australia, this use of English is called ESL (English as a second language). This term has been criticised on the grounds that many learners already speak more than one language. A counter-argument says that the word "a" in the phrase "a second language" means there is no presumption that English is the second acquired language (see also Second language). TESL is the teaching of English as a second language. In the UK, Ireland and New Zealand, the term ESL has been replaced by ESOL (English for speakers of other languages). In these countries TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages) is sometimes used to refer to teaching English only to this group. In the UK, the term EAL (English as an additional language), rather than ESOL, is usually used when talking about the schools sector. In the United States, the term English language learner (ELL) is used by governments and school systems. It differs from the other terms above because it refers to learners rather than the language.

Typically, ESL (ESOL in the countries listed above) is learned to function in the new host country, e.g. within the school system (if a child), to find and hold down a job (if an adult), to perform the necessities of daily life, and TESL does not presuppose literacy in the mother tongue. ESL is often paid for by the host government to help newcomers settle into their adopted country, sometimes as part of an explicit citizenship program.

Particularly in Canada and Australia, the term ESD (English as a second dialect) is used alongside ESL, usually in reference to programs for Canadian First Nations people or indigenous Australians. It refers to the use of standard English by speakers of a creole or non-standard variety. It is often grouped with ESL as ESL/ESD.

The term TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages) is used in American English to include both TEFL and TESL. In British English the equivalent umbrella term is ELT (English language teaching), whereas TESOL has a different meaning; see above.

It is worth noting that ESL and EFL programs also differ in the variety of English which is taught; "English" is a term that can refer to various dialects, including British English, North American English, and others. Students studying EFL in Hong Kong, for example, are more likely to learn British English, whereas students in the Philippines are more likely to learn American English. For this reason, many teachers of EFL now emphasize teaching English as an international language (EIL), also known as English as a ­lingua franca (ELF).

Difficulties for learners

Most of the difficulties which learners face in the study of English are a consequence of the degree to which their native language differs from English. A native speaker of Chinese, for example, faces many more difficulties than a native speaker of German.

Learners of any language usually produce mistakes resulting from the influence of their mother tongue, such as using grammatical patterns from their mother tongue, difficulty in pronouncing certain sounds or confusion between false friends. This is known as L1 interference.

Although the grammar of English is not particularly difficult to learn, there are several features of English which are relatively complex and therefore create difficulties for the majority of learners.

Pronunciation

• Consonant phonemes - English does not have more individual consonant sounds than most languages. However, /θ/ and /ð/ (the sounds written with th), which are common in English (thin, thing, etc.; and the, this, that, etc.) are relatively rare in other languages, even others in the Germanic family (e.g., English thousand = German tausend). Some learners substitute a [t] or [d] sound, while others shift to [s] or [z] depending on what is more natural for them in their native language. Even practiced second language speakers, such as francophone Canadian politicians, retain this pronunciation long after mastering vocabulary and grammar. Another sound that is relatively uncommon in other languages is /ŋ/ (as in singing). Speakers of Asian languages often have difficulty distinguishing [r] and [l]. The distinction between [b] and [v] can also cause difficulty for native speakers of Spanish, as well as Japanese and Korean.
• Vowel phonemes - The precise number of distinct vowel sounds depends on the variety of English: for example, Received Pronunciation has twelve monophthongs (single or "pure" vowels), eight diphthongs (double vowels) and two triphthongs (triple vowels); whereas General American has thirteen monophthongs and three diphthongs. Many learners, such as speakers of Spanish, Japanese or Arabic, have fewer vowels in their mother tongue and so have problems both with hearing and with pronouncing these distinctions.
• Syllable structure - In its syllable structure, English allows for a cluster of up to three consonants before the vowel and four consonants after the vowel (e.g., straw, desks, glimpsed). The syllable structure causes problems for speakers of many other languages. Japanese, for example, alternates consonant and vowel sounds so learners from Japan often try to force vowels in between the consonants (e.g., desks /desks/ becomes "desukusu" or milk shake /mɪlk ʃeɪk/ becomes "mirukusēki"). Learners from languages where all words end in vowels sometimes tend to make all English words end in vowels, thus make /meɪk/ can come out as [meɪkə]. The learner's task is further complicated by the fact that native speakers may drop consonants in the more complex blends (e.g., [məns] instead of [mənθs] for months).
• Unstressed vowels - Native English speakers frequently replace almost any vowel in an unstressed syllable with an unstressed vowel, often schwa. For example, from has a distinctly pronounced short 'o' sound when it is stressed (e.g., Where are you from?), but when it is unstressed, the short 'o' reduces to a schwa (e.g., I'm from London.). In some cases, unstressed vowels may disappear altogether, in words such as chocolate (which has 4 syllables in its native Spanish, but only 2 as pronounced by Americans: choc-lit.) Stress in English more strongly determines vowel quality than it does in most other world languages (although there are notable exceptions like Russian). For example, in some varieties the syllables an, en, in, on and un are pronounced exactly alike. Native speakers can usually distinguish an able, enable, and unable because of their position in a sentence, but this is more difficult for inexperienced English speakers. Moreover, learners tend to overpronounce these unstressed vowels, giving their speech an unnatural rhythm.
• Stress timing - English tends to be a stress-timed language - this means that stressed syllables are roughly equidistant in time, no matter how many syllables come in between. Although some other languages,e.g., German and Russian, are also stress-timed, most of the world's other major languages are syllable-timed, with each syllable coming at an equal time after the previous one. Learners from these languages often have a staccato rhythm when speaking English that is disconcerting to a native speaker.
• Connected speech - Phonological processes such as assimilation, elision and epenthesis together with indistinct word boundaries can confuse learners when listening to natural spoken English, as well as making their speech sound too formal if they do not use them. For example, in RP eight beetles and three ants /eɪt biːtəlz ənd θriː ænts/ becomes [eɪdbiːtl̩zənθriːjæns].

See also Accent reduction

Grammar

• Tenses - English has a relatively large number of tenses with some quite subtle differences, such as the difference between the simple past "I ate" and the present perfect "I have eaten." Progressive and perfect progressive forms add complexity.
• Functions of auxiliaries - Learners of English tend to find it difficult to manipulate the various ways in which English uses the first auxiliary verb of a tense. These include negation (eg He hasn't been drinking.), inversion with the subject to form a question (eg Has he been drinking?, short answers (eg Yes, he has.) and tag questions (has he?). A further complication is that the dummy auxiliary verb do /did is added to fulfil these functions in the simple present and simple past, but not for the verb to be.
• Modal verbs - English also has a significant number of modal auxiliary verbs which each have a number of uses. For example, the opposite of "You must be here at 8" is usually "You don't have to be here at 8," while "must" in "You must not drink the water" has a different meaning from "must" in "You must not be a native speaker." This complexity takes considerable work for most learners to master.
• Articles - English has an appreciable number of articles , including the 'definite' article the and the 'indefinite' article a, an. At times English nouns can be used without an article; this is called the 'zero article'. Some of the differences between definite, indefinite and zero article are fairly easy to learn, but others are not, particularly since a learner's native language may lack articles or use them in slightly different ways than English does. Although the information conveyed by articles is rarely essential for communication, English uses them frequently (several times in the average sentence), so that they require some effort from the learner.

Vocabulary

• Phrasal verbs - Phrasal verbs in English cause a lot of problems for most learners. This is because many phrasal verbs have several meanings and different syntactic patterns. There are also a number of phrasal verb differences betweeen American and British English.
• Word derivation - Word derivation in English requires a lot of rote learning. For example, an adjective can be negated by using the prefix un- (eg unable), or in- (eg inappropriate) or dis- (eg dishonest).
• Size of lexicon - The history of English has resulted in a very large vocabulary. (Schmitt & Marsden claim that it has one of the largest vocabularies of any known language.) This inevitably requires more work for a learner to master the language.

Differences between spoken and written English

• Spelling - Because of the many changes in pronunciation which have occurred since a written standard developed, English spelling is difficult even for native speakers to master. This difficulty is shown in such activities as Spelling Bees that generally require the memorization of words. English speakers may also rely on utilities like Spell checkers more than speakers of other languages, as the users of the spell checker may have forgotten, or never learned, the correct spelling of a word. The generalizations which exist are quite complex and there are many exceptions leading to a considerable amount of rote learning. The spelling system causes problems in both directions - a learner may know a word orally but not be able to write it correctly, or they may see a word written but not know how to pronounce it or mislearn the pronunciation.

Varieties of English

• English is spoken natively by a large and diverse population on every continent, and consequently has some noticeable differences in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar across different regions and across different social strata. Most languages are spoken in geographically more compact areas, usually just in a small number of countries or even a single state, and are often to some degree managed by a specific organisation that determines the most prestigious form of the language. Since many students of English study it to enable them to communicate internationally, the lack of a uniform international standard for the language poses some barriers to meeting that goal.

Exams for learners

Learners of English are often keen to get accreditation and a number of exams are known internationally:

• IELTS (International English Language Testing System), accepted by most tertiary academic institutions in the UK, Australia, New Zealand and Canada, and by many in the USA
• TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language), an Educational Testing Service test of English language proficiency for academic purposes, accepted primarily in the USA
• TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication), an Educational Testing Service test of English language proficiency for business purposes
• Cambridge ESOL General English exams including FCE, CAE and CPE

ESOL learners in England, Wales and Northern Ireland usually take the national Skills for Life qualifications which are offered by several exam boards.

The Common European Framework

Between 1998 and 2000, the Council of Europe's language policy division developed its Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. The aim of this framework was to have a common system for foreign language testing and certification, to cover all European languages and countries.

The Common European Framework divides language learners into three levels:

• A. Basic User
• B. Independent User
• C. Proficient User

Each of these levels is divided into two sections, resulting in a total of six levels for testing (A1, A2, B1, etc).

This table compares ELT exams according to the CEF levels:

CEF level	ALTE level	IELTS exam	BEC & CELS exams	Cambridge General English	Pitman ESOL	TOEIC	TOEFL
C2	Level 5	7.5+	n/a	CPE	Advanced	910+	276+
C1	Level 4	6.5 - 7	Higher	CAE	Higher Intermediate	701 - 910	236 - 275
B2	Level 3	5 - 6	Vantage	FCE	Intermediate	541 - 700	176 - 235
B1	Level 2	3.5 - 4.5	Preliminary	PET	n/a	381 - 540	126 - 175
A2	Level 1	3	n/a	KET	Elementary	246 - 380	96 - 125
A1	Breakthrough	1-2	n/a	n/a	Basic	n/a	n/a

Qualifications for teachers

Non-native speakers

Many non-native speaking teachers who only work in their own country are qualified with the relevant teaching qualification of that country. Those who work in private language schools and in other countries often have the same qualifications as native speakers (see below).

US qualifications

Most US instructors at community colleges and universities qualify by taking an MA in TESOL. This degree also qualifies them to teach in most EFL contexts as well. In some areas of the country, nearly all elementary school teachers are involved in teaching ELLs (English Language Learners, which are children who come to school speaking a home language other than English.) The qualifications for these classroom teachers vary from state to state but always include a state-issued teaching certificate for public instruction.

Teachers in all states require state licensing, which requires substantial practical field experiences and language pedagogy course work. The MA in TESOL includes both graduate work in English as one of the classical liberal arts (literature, linguistics, media studies) with a theoretical pedagogical component at the tertiary level. Admission to the MA in TESOL typically requires at least a bachelor's degree with a minor in English or linguistics. A degree in a foreign language can sometimes also be considered sufficient for admission.

It is important to note that the issuance of a teaching certificate or license is not automatic following completion of degree requirements. All teachers must complete a battery of exams (typically the PRAXIS subject and method exams or similar, state-sponsored exams) as well as supervised instruction as teaching interns. Teaching interns possess initial certification and are independent instructors in their classrooms; however, they are not considered "Professionals" until they have sufficiently satisfied governing boards that they are fit to teach. Their performance is evaluated throughout their tenure as interns. Upon successful completion of all components of their training programs, they may be offered a professional certificate. Out-of-state teaching certificates are usually recognized by other states.

British qualifications

Common, respected qualifications for teachers within the British sphere of influence include certificates and diplomas issued by UCLES (University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate) and Trinity International Examinations Board of Trinity College, London.

A certificate course is usually undertaken before starting to teach. This is sufficient for many EFL jobs (see TEFL) and for some ESOL ones. UCLES offers the CELTA (Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults), perhaps the most widely taken and accepted course for new teacher trainees. It is often taught full-time over a one-month period or part-time over a period up to a year. Trinity offer the CertTESOL (Certificate in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages), which is usually considered equivalent to the CELTA.

Teachers usually have two or more years of teaching experience and intend to stay in the profession before they take a diploma course. Those who want to move into school management or become teacher trainers usually need a diploma. UCLES offers the DELTA (Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults). Trinity offers the LTCL DipTESOL (Trinity Licentiate Diploma in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages). There are usually considered to be equivalent.

Some teachers who stay in the profession go on to do an MA in a relevant discipline such as applied linguistics or TESOL. Note that UK master's degrees require extensive preparation and experience in the field before a candidate is accepted onto the course; in this respect they are truly to master the knowledge and skills that the candidate already has.

The above qualifications are well-respected within the UK ESOL sector. However, in England and Wales, in order to meet the government's criteria for being a qualified teacher of ESOL in the Learning and Skills Sector (ie adult education), teachers need to have the Certificate in Further Education Teaching Stage 3 and the Certificate for ESOL Subject Specialists, both at level 4. Recognised qualifications which confer one or both of these include a PGCE in ESOL, the CELTA module 2 and City & Guilds 9488.

Professional associations

• TESOL Inc. is Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, a professional organization based in the United States. In addition, there are many large state-wide affiliates such as CATESOL in California and Illinois TESOL•BE
• IATEFL is the International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language, a professional organization based in Britain.
• Several other professional organisations for teachers of English exist at national levels such as the Japan Association for Language Teaching (JALT [link]), Society of Pakistan English Language Teachers (SPELT), BELTA in Bangladesh, SLELTA in Sri Lanka, NELTA in Nepal, and MELTA in Malaysia. Professional organisations may be bigger in structure (pan-national, such as TESOL Arabia in the Gulf states), or smaller (limited to one city or province). Some professional organisations are affiliated to TESOL or IATEFL.
• NATECLA is the National Association for Teaching English and other Community Languages to Adults, a British-based organisation which is focused on teaching ESOL in Britain.

Acronyms and abbreviations

See also: Language education for information on general language teaching acronyms and abbreviations.

• CELTA - Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults
• DELTA - Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults
• EAL - English as an additional language

:The use of this term is restricted to certain countries. See the discussion in Terminology and types.

EAP - English for academic purposes

EFL - English as a foreign language

:English for use in a non-English-speaking region, by someone whose first language is not English. See the discussion in Terminology and types.

EIL - English as an international language

ELF - English as a lingua franca

ELL - English language learner

:The use of this term is restricted to certain countries. See the discussion in Terminology and types.

ELT - English language teaching

:The use of this term is restricted to certain countries. See the discussion in Terminology and types.

ESL - English as a second language

:English for use in an English-speaking region, by someone whose first language is not English. The use of this term is restricted to certain countries. See the discussion in Terminology and types.

ESOL - English for speakers of other languages

:This term is used differently in different countries. See the discussion in Terminology and types.

ESP - English for special purposes, or English for specific purposes (e.g. technical English, scientific English, English for medical professionals, English for waiters).

IELTS - International English Language Testing System

TEFL - Teaching English as a foreign language This link is to an extensive discussionof travel-teaching.

:See the discussion in Terminology and types.

TESL - Teaching English as a second language

:The use of this term is restricted to certain countries. See the discussion in Terminology and types.

TESOL - Teaching English to speakers of other languages, or Teaching English as a second or other language

:See the discussion in Terminology and types.

TOEFL - Test of English as a Foreign Language

TOEIC - Test of English for International Communication

UCLES - University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate, an exam board

See also

Language terminology

• Second language
• Foreign language

General language teaching and learning

• Language education
• Second language acquisition
• Applied linguistics

English language teaching and learning

• Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL), for an extended discussion of travel-teaching
• Non-native pronunciations of English

Contemporary English

• English language
• American and British English differences

Other

• Ruth Hayman - ESL pioneer
• List of countries by English speaking population

External links

• [Association of Language testers in Europe, ALTE]

 

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