Field hockey

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A game of field hockey in progress

Field hockey is a popular sport for men and women in many countries around the world. In most countries, especially those in which ice hockey is not very prominent, it is simply known as hockey.

Field hockey has several regular and prestigious international tournaments for both men and women. These events include the Olympic Games, the quadrennial World Hockey Cups, the annual Champions Trophies, and World Cups for juniors.

Pakistani and Indian national teams dominated men's hockey until the early 1980's, winning four of the first five world cups, but have become less prominent recently, with The Netherlands, Germany and Australia gaining importance in the late 1980s (though Pakistan won the world cup in 1994, came second in 1990, and gained a bronze Olympic medal in 1992). Other strong hockey playing nations include Spain, Argentina and South Korea. The Netherlands was the predominant international women's team before hockey was added to Olympic events. In the early 1990s Australia emerged as the strongest women's country, though retirement of a number of key players has weakened the team. Other important women's teams are China, Korea, Argentina and Germany.

Many countries have extensive club competitions for both junior and senior players. Despite the large numbers of participants, club hockey is not a particularly large spectator sport and few players can afford to play professionally.

In the United States and Canada field hockey is widely regarded as a girls' and women's sport, but there are some men's leagues as well.

In those countries where winter conditions prevent play on outdoor fields, field hockey is played indoors during the off-season. This indoor variant, known as indoor field hockey differs from its outdoor parent in a number of respects. For example, the players may not raise the ball outside the shooting circle, nor hit it.

Contents

History

Games played with curved sticks and a ball have been found throughout history and the world; for example, there are 4,000 year old drawings in Egypt of the game being played, hurling dates back to before 1272 B.C., and there is a depiction from 500B.C. in Ancient Greece. There were various hockey-like games throughout Europe during the Middle Ages, and the word 'hockey' was recorded in the Galway Statutes of 1527. The modern game of hockey grew from the game played in English public schools in the early 19th century. The first club was created in 1849 at Blackheath in south-east London, but the modern rules grew out of a version of hockey played by members of Middlesex cricket clubs for winter sport. The Hockey Association was founded in 1886, the first international took place in 1895 (Ireland 3, Wales 0), and the International Rules Board was founded in 1900.

Hockey was played at the Hockey at the Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1920. It was dropped in 1924, leading to the foundation of the Fédération Internationale de Hockey sur Gazon, or FIH as an international governing body by seven continental European nations, and hockey was reinstated in 1928. Men's hockey united under the FIH in 1970.

The game had been taken to India by British servicemen, and the first clubs formed there in Calcutta in 1885. The Beighton Cup and the Aga Khan tournament had commenced within ten years. Entering the Olympic Games in 1928, India won all five of its games without conceding a goal, and went on to win in 1932 until 1956, and then in 1964 and 1980. Pakistan won in 1960, 1968, and 1984.

Women's field hockey, played on grass. Universal until the 1970's, this is now quite rare for competitive hockey in many countries

In the early 1970's, artificial turf fields began to be used in competition. The introduction of synthetic pitches instead of grass ones has completely changed most aspects of hockey. The game, as well as the material used to play, has taken a definitive turn, gaining mainly in speed. In order to take into account the specificities of this surface, new tactics and new techniques have been developed, often followed by the establishment of new rules to take account of these techniques. The switch to synthetic surfaces essentially ended Indian and Pakistani domination of the sport, because artificial turf was far more expensive than grass; too expensive for the two countries to implement widely in comparison to the wealthier European countries, and since the 1970's Australia, The Netherlands, and Germany have dominated the sport at the Olympics.

Women do not seem to have played hockey widely before the modern era. Women's hockey was first played at British Universities and schools, and the first club, Molesey Ladies Hockey Club, was founded in 1887. The first national association was the Irish Ladies Hockey Union in 1894, and though rebuffed by the Hockey Association, women's hockey grew rapidly around the world. This led to the formation of the International Federation of Women's Hockey Associations (IFWHA) in 1927, though this did not include initially many continental European countries where women played as sections of men's associations and were affiliated to the FIH. The IFWHA held conferences every three years, and the tournaments associated with these were the primary IFWHA competitions. These tournaments were non-competitive until 1975.

By the early 1970's there were 22 associations with women's sections in the FIH and 36 associations in the IFWHA. Discussions were started about a common rule book. The FIH introduced competitive tournaments in 1974, forcing the acceptance of the principle of competitive hockey by the IFWHA in 1973. It took until 1982 for the two bodies to merge, but this allowed the introduction of women's hockey to the Olympic games from 1980 where, as in the men's game, The Netherlands, Germany, and Australia have been consistently strong.

The field of play

Diagram of a hockey field

Most hockey field dimensions were originally fixed using whole numbers of imperial measures and are expressed as such in this article. It is, nevertheless, the metric measurements shown in parenthesis which are the current official dimensions of the field of play as laid down by the International Hockey Federation (FIH) in the "Rules of Hockey 2005".

The game is played between two teams of eleven players on a 100 × 60 yard (91.4 m × 55 m) rectangular field. At each end there is a goal 7 feet (2.14 m) high and 12 feet (3.66 m) wide, and a semi-circle 16 yards (14.63 m) from the goal known as the shooting circle (or D or arc), with a dotted line 5 yards (5 m) from the semi-circle, as well as lines across the field 25 yards (22.9 m) from each end-line and in the center of the field. A spot, called the penalty spot, is placed 7 yards (6.4 m) from the center of each goal.

Traditional grass pitches are far less common in modern hockey with most hockey being played on synthetic surfaces. Since the 1970's sand based pitches were favoured as they dramatically speed up the pace of the game. However, in recent years there has been a massive increase in the number of 'water based' artificial turfs. Indeed, international hockey is now predominantly played on this surface as it requires a greater level of ball control due to the less predictable nature of the surface.

Rules and play

Throughout most of the world the rules set by the FIH are used. However in the United States, NCAA have their own rules for inter-collegiate competitions, and high school associations similarly play to different rules. This article assumes FIH rules unless otherwise stated.

Players are permitted to play the ball with any part of the stick other than the rounded side (back). The flat side is always on the "natural" side for a right-handed person — there are no "left-handed" hockey sticks (for actual use in play, some have been made as novelties).

Positions

Teams consist of eleven players on the field, and up to five substitutes. Substitutions are not limited but may not be made during a penalty corner. There are no set positions other than goalkeeper, but most teams arrange themselves into fullbacks, midfielders and forwards. Many teams include a single sweeper, who plays behind the fullbacks.

A goalkeeper makes a glove save. Equipment worn here is typical gear for a goalkeeper.

One player from each team is designated the goalkeeper. Goalkeepers must wear a suitable helmet with full face mask and are also permitted to wear protective padding, including large leg guards, kickers and gloves. Although goalkeepers may block or deflect the ball with any part of their bodies, and propel the ball with their feet, they must always carry a stick, and normal stick rules apply. Goalkeepers are permitted to play the ball outside their defensive circle (scoring area or "D"), but must only use the stick in this circumstance.

General Play

For the purposes of the rules, all players on the team in possession of the ball are attackers, and those on the team without the ball are defenders.

The match is officiated by two field umpires. Traditionally each umpire generally controls half of the field, divided roughly diagonally, although now experiments are being made where either umpire can make any decision anywhere on the field. These umpires are often assisted by a technical bench including a timekeeper and record keeper.

Prior to the start of the game, a coin is tossed and the winning captain can choose a starting end or start with the ball. The game time is divided into two equal halves of 35 minutes each, with five minutes for half-time. At the start of each half, as well as after goals are scored, play is started with a pass from the centre of the field. All players must start in their defensive half, but the ball may be played in any direction. Each team starts with the ball in one half, and the team that conceded the goal has possession for the restart.

Field players may only play the ball with the face of the stick. Tackling is permitted as long as the tackler does not make contact with the attacker or his stick before playing the ball (contact after the tackle may also be penalised if the tackle was made from a position where contact was inevitable). Further, the player with the ball may not deliberately use his body to push a defender out of the way.

Obstruction typically occurs in three circumstances - when a defender comes between the player with possession and the ball without first performing a legitimate tackle; when a defender's stick comes between the attacker's stick and the ball or makes contact with the attacker's stick; and also when (usually deliberately) blocking the opposition's passage to the ball (called third party obstruction).

When the ball passes over the sidelines, it is returned to play with a sideline hit, taken by a member of the team whose players were not the last to touch the ball before crossing the sideline. If it crosses the backline after last touched by an attacker, a 15 m hit. A 15 m hit is also awarded for offenses committed by the attacking side within 15 m of the end of the pitch they are attacking.

Set Plays

Free Hits

Free hits are awarded when offences are committed outside the scoring circles. The ball may be hit or pushed once in any direction by the team offended against. Opponents must move 5 m from the ball when a free hit is awarded, and for attacking free hits within 5 m of the circle all attackers other than the one taking the hit must also by 5 m away.

As mentioned above, a 15 m hit is awarded if an attacking player commits a foul forward of that line, or if the ball passes over the backline off an attacker. These hits are taken in line with where the foul was committed (taking a line parallel with the sideline between where the offence was committed, or the ball went out of play). If the attack commit a foul in the circle they are attacking, the defence additionally has the option to take the free hit anyway in that circle.

Long Corner

A long corner is awarded if the ball goes over the backline after last being touched by a defender. Long corners are played by the attacking team and involve a free hit on the sideline five yards from the corner of the field closest to where the ball went out of play.

Short Corner

The short or penalty corner is a rather complicated set play that is awarded against a defending team when any offence is committed in the defensive circle, and may be awarded when a deliberate offence is committed in the defending 23 m area, or when the defending team deliberately plays the ball over the back line.

Short corners begin with five defenders (including the keeper) arranged along the backline. All other defenders must return to the centre line until the ball is in play. Attacking players begin the play standing outside the scoring circle, except for one attacker who starts the corner by playing the ball from a mark 10 m either side of the goal (the circle has a 14.63 m radius). This player puts the ball into play by pushing or hitting the ball to the other attackers outside the circle; the ball must pass outside the circle before the attackers attempt to get a shot or deflection into the goal. For safety reasons, the first shot of a penalty corner must remain under 460 mm high unless it is flicked.

Penalty Stroke

A penalty stroke is awarded when defenders commit a deliberate foul in the circle which deprives an attacker of possession or the opportunity to play the ball, when an accidental breach prevents a certain goal, or if defenders repeatedly "break" or start to run from the backline before a penalty corner has started. This penalty pits a single attacker against the goalkeeper, and is taken from a spot 6.4 m out and directly in front of the goal. The goalkeeper must stand with heels on the goal line, and cannot move his feet until the ball is played. On the umpire's whistle, the striker may take one step and push or flick the ball at the goal, which the goalkeeper attempts to save. The attacker is not permitted to take more than one step, more than one shot, to fake or dummy the shot, or to move towards or interfere with the goalkeeper once the shot is taken. Hitting or dragging the ball is also forbidden. If the shot is saved, play is restarted with a 15 m hit to the defenders; if a goal is scored, play is restarted in the normal way.

Dangerous Play and Raised Balls

If the ball is raised off the ground in a manner that is, in the umpire's opinion, dangerous, the ball is turned over to the other team and they receive a free hit from the point of contact. The definition of a "dangerous ball" is a matter of interpretation by the umpires. Guidance in the rules states "a ball is considered dangerous when it causes legitimate evasive action by players" — but it also depends on the speed of the ball, the height at which it is raised, and the number of players near its path.

It is, however, legal to raise the ball when making a shot on goal (by hitting or flicking), or to make an 'overhead' pass (providing opposition players are greater than 5 m from the player, and the ball is not dangerous). The ball may only deliberately be raised using a hit if the player is shooting at goal.

Dangerous play rules also apply with relation to the usage of the stick. Players may not attempt to play at the ball above their shoulders (unless saving a goal on the goal line). It will generally be considered dangerous play to hit the ball while it is in the air; the ball must be controlled first in this circumstance.

Warnings and Suspensions

Hockey uses a three-tier card system of warnings and suspensions. A Green card is a warning, while a Yellow card is a temporary suspension for a minimum of 5 minutes duration without substitution. As in association football, a Red card is a permanent exclusion from the rest of the game, without substitution, and in many circumstances will also result in the player being banned for a certain period of time or number of matches (this is governed by local playing conditions, rather than the rules of hockey). Unlike football, a player may receive more than one card of the same colour, although a second and subsequent card cannot be of a "lower" colour than one previously issued, and in the case of a second yellow card the temporary suspension would be expected to be of considerably longer duration than the first. However, local playing conditions may mandate that cards are awarded only progressively, and not allow second awards.

Scoring

The teams' object is to play the ball into their attacking circle and, from there, hit, push or flick the ball into the goal, scoring a point. The team with more goals after two 35-minute halves wins the game.

Tie Breaker

Conditions for breaking ties are not laid down in the rules of hockey, but many associations will follow the procedure laid down in FIH tournament regulations which mandate 7.5 minutes each way of "golden goal" extra time (i.e. the game ends as soon as one team scores). If scores are still level, then the game will be decided with penalty strokes, in much the same way that association football penalty shoot outs are conducted.

Other competitions may use alternative means of breaking a tie, for example, an extended period of golden goal extra time with a progressive reduction in the number of players each team can have on the field (usually termed "drop-offs"); if no goal is scored at the end of such extra time periods, again a result would be achieved using penalty strokes.

Equipment

Goalkeeper in full outfit.

Each player carries a "stick", normally a little over 3 feet (90 centimetres) long and traditionally made of wood but now often made with fibreglass, kevlar and carbon fibre composites, with a rounded handle flattening out on one side and with a hook at the bottom. New rules (2006) limit the curve of the stick so as to limit the power with which the ball can be flicked. The stick is only allowed to have a bow smaller than or equal to 25 mm otherwise this is deemed to be illegal. The flat side of the hook is used to push, dribble, or hit a hard plastic ball. This ball is often covered with indentations to reduce hydroplaning that can cause an inconsistent ball speed on wet surfaces. Each field player normally wears a mouth guard and shin guards. Although the only equipment required for Goalkeepers (under FIH rules, local variants may require more) is a helmet and a stick, invariably they wear extensive protective equipment including chest guards, padded shorts, heavily padded hand protectors, leg guards, and foot guards (called "kickers").

Tactics

The main methods by which the ball is moved around the field by players are: the "dribble", where the player controls the ball with the stick and runs with the ball, pushing the ball along as they run; The "push", where the player uses their wrists to push at the ball; the "flick" or "scoop", similar to the push but with an additional wrist action to force the stick through at an angle and lift the ball off the ground; and the "hit", where a backlift is taken and contact with the ball is made quite forcefully. In order to produce a much stronger hit, usually for travel over long distances, the stick is raised higher and swung at the ball, known as a "drive". Tackles are made by placing the stick into the path of the ball. To increase the effectiveness of the tackle, players will often place the entire stick close to the ground horizontally, thus representing a wider barrier. To avoid the tackle, the ball carrier will either pass the ball to a teammate using any of the push, flick, or hit, or attempt to maneuver or "pull" the ball around the tackle, trying to deceive the tackler.

When passing and maneuvering between players, certain commands are used to ensure understanding of movements and plays among teammates. Although these vary depending on which country the game is in, there are a few standard calls. By calling "through" or "straight" the ball is passed straight ahead to another player. "Flat" or "square" signifies a pass made to the right or left of the player with the ball at a 90 degree angle. Passes made backward are occasionally signified by a call of "drop". A hit made forward at an angle is recognized as "up".

In recent years, the penalty corner has gained importance as a vital part of the game as a goal scoring opportunity. Particularly with the advent and popularisation of the drag flick, penalty corners are highly sought after. Some tactics or set plays used involve the aforementioned drag flick, the straight hit, deflections towards goal, and various, more complex plays, using passes before shots at goal.

At the highest level, hockey is a fast-moving, highly skilled sport, with players using fast moves with the stick, quick accurate passing, and hard hits, in attempts to keep possession and move the ball towards the goal. While physically tackling and otherwise obstructing players is not permitted, collisions are common, and the speed at which the ball travels along the ground (and sometimes through the air, which is legal if it is not judged dangerous by the umpire) requires the use of padded shin guards to prevent injury. Some of the tactics used resemble football (soccer), but with greater speed - the best players maneuver and score almost quicker than the eye can see.

Formations

Formations provide structure to a hockey team on the pitch. They help players understand and share the defensive and attacking responsibilities. Although higher level teams may select from a wide range of formations, teams containing inexperienced players or teams which see frequent changes to their players are likely to select from a more limited range of formations such as 4-3-3, 5-3-2 and 4-4-2. (The numbers refer to the number of players arrayed across the pitch, starting in front of the goalkeeper with the defenders, then midfield and then attack.) The 2-3-5 formation, used predominantly in Australia from relatively lowly interschool to professional interstate competitions, provides common language for many players and helps explain why "centre half" is often a name used for a player in the centre of a defence with 4 or 5 players.

Because hockey teams have 1 goalkeeper plus 10 outfield players as does association football (soccer), there are many common formations between the two sports. See formation.

One important difference in modern hockey is the absence of an offside rule. This allows attackers (often a lone attacker) to play well up the pitch, stretching the opponents' defence and using the large spaces to be found there. To counter this, defences usually keep a matching number of defenders near those attackers. This can frequently lead to formations such as 1-4-4-1 which is an adaptation of 5-4-1.

Major International Tournaments

The biggest two field hockey tournaments are undoubtedly the Olympic Games tournament, and the Hockey World Cup, which is also held every 4 years. Apart from this, there is the Champions Trophy Cup held each year for the six top-ranked teams. Field hockey is also played in the Commonwealth Games. Amongst the men, India has won 8 Olympic golds and Pakistan have lifted the World Cup 4 times. Amongst the women, Australia has 3 Olympic golds while Netherlands has clinched the World Cup 6 times. Sultan Azlan Shah Hockey Tournament held annually in Malaysia is becoming a prominent Hockey Tournament where teams from around the world participate to win the cup.

Playing Countries

A list of countries affiliated to FIH, by continent/confederation:

Africa

Botswana Hockey Association
Egyptian Hockey Federation
Ghana Hockey Association
Guyana Hockey Board Of Control
Kenya Hockey Union
Libya - General National Hockey Federation
Hockey Association Of Malawi
Morocco - Fédération Royale Marocaine De Hockey
Namibia Hockey Union
Nigeria Hockey Federation
South African Hockey Association
Sudan Hockey Federation
Tanzania Hockey Association
Uganda Hockey Association
Zambia Hockey Association
Hockey Association Of Zimbabwe
Asia

National Hockey Association Of Afghanistan
Hockey Federation Of Armenia
Azerbaijan Field Hockey Federation
Bangladesh Hockey Federation
Brunei Hockey Association
Cambodian Hockey Association
Chinese Hockey Association
Chinese Taipei Hockey Association
Hong Kong Hockey Association
Indian Hockey Confederation
Indonesian Hockey Association
Iran Hockey Federation
The Israel Hockey Association
Japan Hockey Association
Kazakhstan Hockey Federation
Korea Hockey Association
Hockey Association Of The Democratic People's Republic Of Korea
Macau Hockey Association
Nederlands Antilles Hockey Association
Malaysian Hockey Federation
Union Of Myanmar Hockey Federation
Nepal Hockey Association
Oman Hockey Association
Pakistan Hockey Federation
Philippine Hockey Association (Pha)
The Seychelles Hockey Federation
Singapore Hockey Federation
Sri Lanka Hockey Federation
Federation Of Hockey Of Tadjikistan
Thailand - Thai Hockey Association
Hockey Federation Of Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan Hockey Federation
United Arab Emirates Hockey Committee
Europe

Austria - Österreichischer Hockey Verband
Belarus Hockey Federation
Belgium - Koninklijke Belgische Hockey Bond / Association Royale Belge De Hockey
Bulgarian Hockey Federation
Croatian Hockey Federation
Cyprus Hockey Association
Czech Hockey Federation
Denmark - Dansk Hockey Union
England Hockey
Finnish Hockey Association
France - Fédération Française De Hockey
Georgian Hockey Federation
Germany - Deutscher Hockey Bund
Gibraltar Hockey Association
Greece - Hellenic Hockey Federation
United Kingdom - Though there exists a Great British hockey federation, its jurisdiction is limited to selecting Olympic sides, with regional federations within the UK retaining sole control of their respective national teams at all other times.
Hungarian Hockey Association
Irish Hockey Association
Italy - Federazione Italiana Hockey
Latvia Field Hockey Association
Lithuanian Hockey Federation
Hockey Club Luxembourg
Hockey Association Malta
Republic Moldova Field Hockey Federation
Netherlands - Koninklijke Nederlandse Hockey Bond
Norway - Landhockeyseksjon, Norges Bandyforbund
Polish Hockey Association
Portugal - Federacao Portuguesa De Hoquei
Romanian Field Hockey Federation
Russian Hockey Federation
Scottish Hockey Union
Serbia And Montenegro Hockey Federation
Slovakia - Slovak Hockey Association
Slovenian Hockey Federation
Spain - Real Federacion Espanola De Hockey
Swedish Hockey Association
Switzerland - Schweizerischer Landhockey-Verband
Turkish Hockey Federation
Ukrainian Hockey Federation
Welsh Hockey Union

Oceania

American Samoa Field Hockey Association
Hockey Australia
Fiji Hockey Federation
Papua New Guinea Hockey Federation
New Zealand Hockey Federation
Solomon Islands Hockey Association
Tonga Hockey Federation
Western Samoa Hockey Association
Pan American

Argentina - Confederacion Argentina De Hockey Sobre Cesped Y Pista
Bahamas Hockey Association
Barbados Hockey Association
Bermuda Hockey Federation
Brazil - Confederação Brasileira De Hockey (Abh)
Field Hockey Canada
Cayman Islands Hockey Federation
Chile - Federacion Chilena De Hockey
Cuba - Federacion Cubana De Hockey
Dominican Hockey Federation
Jamaica Hockey Federation
Federacion Mexicana De Hockey
Paraguay - Asociacion Amateur Paraguaya De Hockey
Panama
Peru - Fedaracion Peruana De Hockey
Puerto Rico - Federacion Puertorriquena De Hockey
U.S. Field Hockey Association
Uruguay - Federacion Uruguaya De Hockey Sobre Cesped
Trinidad & Tobago Hockey Federation
Venezuelan Hockey Federation Sobre Cesped

External links

[The FIH] - the game's international governing body
[FIH Rules of Hockey 2006] (pdf file)
[FieldHockey.com] - World hockey resource on the web (news, plus the Talkinghockey.net forum)
[Field Hockey Forum] - International Field Hockey Community Site

Team sports

Sport | Governing Bodies | Sportsmen

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