Gemara
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The Gemara (also Gemorah) (גמרא - from gamar: Hebrew "[to] complete"; Aramaic "[to] study") is that part of the Talmud that contains rabbinical commentaries and analysis of the core component, the Mishnah. After this core text was edited by Rabbi Judah, it was studied exhaustively by generation after generation of rabbis in Babylon. Eventually, some of these rabbis wrote down their discussions and commentaries on the Mishna's laws in the series of books that became the Gemera, which when combined with the Mishna completes the Talmud. The rabbis of Palestine later (around 400 AD) edited their own discussions of the Mishna, creating another Gemera. The subsequent combination of this more recent Gemera and the Mishna became known as the Palestinian Talmud (in Hebrew, Talmud Yerushalmi, which literally means "Jerusalem Talmud").
Gemara and Mishnah
The Gemara and the Mishnah together make up the Talmud. The Talmud thus comprises two components: the Mishnah - the core text; and the gemara - analysis and commentary which “completes” the Talmud (from gamar גמר,: Hebrew "[to] complete"; Aramaic "[to] study"); see Structure of the Talmud.The rabbis of the Mishnah are known as Tannaim (sing. Tanna תנא). The rabbis of the Gemara are referred to as Amoraim (sing. Amora אמורא).
Because there are effectively two Gemara, there are in fact two Talmuds, corresponding to the Jerusalem (or Palestinian) Gemara and the Babylonian Gemara; both share the same Mishnah. The Jerusalem Gemara is written in Western Aramaic, while the Babylonian Gemara is written in Eastern Aramaic. The Mishna is in Hebrew.
The Sugya
The analysis of the Amoraim is generally focused on clarifying the positions, words and views of the Tannaim. These debates and exchanges form the "building-blocks" of the gemara; the name for a passage of gemara is a sugya (סוגיא; plural sugyot). A sugya will typically comprise a detailed proof-based elaboration of the Mishna. Every aspect of the Mishnaic text is treated as a subject of close investigation. This analysis is aimed at an exhaustive understanding of the Mishna's full meaning.In the Talmud, a sugya is presented as a series of responsive hypotheses and questions - with the Talmudic text as a record of each step in the process of reasoning and derivation. The Gemara thus takes the form of a dialectical exchange. (By contrast, the Mishnah states concluded legal opinions - and often differences in opinion between the Tannaim. There is little dialogue.) The disputants here are termed the makshan (questioner) and tartzan (answerer).
The gemara records the semantic disagreements between Tannaim and Amoraim. Some of these debates were actually conducted by the Amoraim, though most of them are hypothetically reconstructed by the Talmud's redactors. (Often imputing a view to an earlier authority as to how he may have answered a question: "This is what Rabbi X could have argued...") Rarely are debates formally closed.
Argumentation and debate
The distinctive character of the gemara derives largely from the intricate use of argumentation and debate, described above. In each sugya, either participant may cite scriptural, Mishnaic and Amoraic proof to build a logical support for their respective opinions. The process of deduction required to derive a conclusion from a prooftext is often logically complex and indirect. "Confronted with a statement on any subject, the Talmudic student will proceed to raise a series of questions before he satisfies himself of having understood its full meaning." [link]. This analysis is often described as "mathematical" in approach; Adin Steinsaltz makes the analogy of the Amoraim as scientists investigating the Halakha, where the Tanakh, Mishnah, Tosefta and midrash are the phenomena studied.Prooftexts
Prooftexts quoted to corroborate or disprove the respective opinions and theories will include:- verses from the Tanakh: the exact language employed is regarded as significant;
- other mishnayot: cross-references to analogous cases, or to parallel reasoning by the Tanna in question;
- Beraitot - non-mishnaic sources of halakha (lit. outside material; sing. beraita ברייתא):
- *references to opinions and cases in the Tosefta (תוספתא);
- *references to the Halakhic Midrash (Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifre);
- cross-references to other sugyot: again to analogous cases or logic.
Questions
The actual debate will usually centre on the following categories:Language
Why does the Mishna use one word rather than another? If a statement is not clear enough, the Gemara seeks to clarify the Mishna's intention.Logic
Exploring the logical principles underlying the Mishnah's statements, and showing how different understandings of the Mishnah's reasons could lead to differences in their practical application. What underlying principle is entailed in a statement of fact or in a specific instance brought as an illustration? If a statement appears obvious, the Gemara seeks the logical reason for its necessity. It seeks to answer under which circumstances a statement is true, and what qualifications are permissible. All statements are examined for internal consistency.Legal
Resolving contradictions, perceived or actual, between different statements in the Mishnah, or between the Mishnah and other traditions; e.g., by stating that: two conflicting sources are dealing with differing circumstances; or that they represent the views of different Rabbis. Do certain authorities differ or not? If they do, why do they differ? If a principle is presented as a generalization, the gemara clarifies how much is included; if an exception, how much is excluded.Biblical exposition
Demonstrating how the Mishnah's rulings or disputes, derive from interpretations of Biblical texts. From where in the Torah does the Mishnah derive a particular law? See The thirteen rules by which Jewish law was derived.See also
- Oral law in Judaism
- Jerusalem Talmud
- Daf Yomi
- The Kallah Month
External links and references
Sources
- [Gemara], jewishencyclopedia.com
- [Talmudic Method], Harry Austryn Wolfson
- [Gemara], Prof. Eliezer Segal
- Maimonides introduction to the Mishneh Torah see [English translation at Mechon-Mamre]
- "The Talmud", Adin Steinsaltz, Jason Aronson; 1994
- "Introduction to The Talmud and Midrash" H.L. Strack and G. Stemberger, Fortress Press
- "The infinite chain : Torah, masorah, and man" Nathan T. Lopes Cardozo, Targum Press Distributed by Philipp Feldheim; 1989
Resources
- [point by point summary and discussion of the Gemara]
- [Daf-A-Week: A project to study a daf per week]
- [The Complete Babylonian Talmud] (Aramaic/Hebrew) as scanned images of the pages.
- [The Complete Babylonian Talmud] (Aramaic/Hebrew) as text. (Also available from [other sites])
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