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Germanic languages

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The Germanic languages are a group of related languages constituting a branch of the Indo-European (IE) language family. The common ancestor of all languages comprising this branch is Proto-Germanic, spoken in approximately the latter mid-1st millennium BC in Iron Age Northern Europe. Proto-Germanic, along with all of its descendants, is characterized by a number of unique linguistic features, most famously the consonant change known as Grimm's law. Early Germanic varieties enter history with the Germanic peoples who settled in northern Europe along the borders of the Roman Empire from the 2nd century.

The largest Germanic languages are English and German, with approximately 380 and 120 million native speakers respectively.The group consists of other notable languages, such as Dutch with 22 and Afrikaans with 16 million speakers; and the Scandinavian languages including Danish, Norwegian and Swedish with a combined total of about 20 million speakers. The SIL Ethnologue lists 53 different Germanic languages and dialects.

Contents

Characteristics

Germanic languages possess several unique features, such as the following:

  1. The leveling of the IE tense and aspect system into the present tense and past tense (also called preterite).
  2. The use of a dental suffix (/d/ or /t/) instead of vowel alternation (Indo-European ablaut) to indicate past tense. See Germanic weak verb.
  3. The presence of two distinct types of verb conjugation: weak (using dental suffix) and strong (using ablaut). English has 161 strong verbs; almost all are of Germanic origin. See: Germanic strong verb.
  4. The use of strong and weak adjectives. Modern English adjectives don't change except for comparative and superlative; this was not the case in Old English, where adjectives were inflected differently depending on whether they were preceded by an article or demonstrative.
  5. The consonant shift known as Grimm's Law.
  6. A number of words with etymologies that are difficult to link to other Indo-European families, but variants of which appear in almost all Germanic languages. See Germanic substrate hypothesis.
  7. The shifting of stress accent onto the root of the stem and later to the first syllable of the word. Though English has an irregular stress, native words always have a fixed stress regardless of what's added to them. This is arguably the most important change.
Germanic languages differ from each other to a greater degree than do some other language families such as the Romance or Slavic languages. Roughly speaking, Germanic languages differ in how conservative or how progressive each language is with respect to an overall trend towards analycity. Some, like German, Dutch and Icelandic, have preserved much of the complex inflectional morphology inherited from the Proto-Indo-European language. Others, like English, Swedish and Afrikaans have moved towards a largely analytic type.

Another characteristic of Germanic languages is verb second or V2 word order, which is quite uncommon cross-linguistically. This feature is shared by all Germanic languages except English, which has largely replaced the structure with an overall SVO structure.

Most Germanic languages have fairly complex vowel systems with a large phoneme inventory.

Writing

The earliest evidence of Germanic comes from names recorded in the 1st century by Tacitus, and in a single instance in the 2nd century BC, on the Negau helmet. From roughly the 2nd century AD, certain speakers of early Germanic varieties developed the Elder Futhark, an early form of the runic alphabet. Early runic inscriptions are also largely limited to personal names, and difficult to interpret. The Gothic language was written in the Gothic alphabet developed by Bishop Ulfilas for his translation of the Bible in the 4th century. Later, Christian priests and monks who spoke and read Latin in addition to their native Germanic varieties began writing the Germanic languages with slightly modified Latin letters. However, throughout the Viking Age, runic alphabets remained in common use in Scandinavia.

In addition to the standard Latin alphabet, various Germanic languages use a variety of accent marks and extra letters, including umlauts, the ß (Eszett), IJ, Ø, Æ, Å, Ð, Ȝ, and Þ and Ƿ, from runes.

History

The global distribution of Germanic languages. Solid red indicates that a majority of inhabitants speaks a Germanic language. Striped red indicates that a sizeable minority (more than 10%) speaks a Germanic language.
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The global distribution of Germanic languages. Solid red indicates that a majority of inhabitants speaks a Germanic language. Striped red indicates that a sizeable minority (more than 10%) speaks a Germanic language.

Line dividing the North and West Germanic languages.}}
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Line dividing the North and West Germanic languages.}}

All Germanic languages are thought to be descended from a hypothetical Proto-Germanic, united by their having been subjected to the sound shifts of Grimm's law and Verner's law. These took place probably during the Pre-Roman Iron Age of Northern Europe from ca. 500 BC, but other common innovations separating Germanic from Proto-Indo European suggest a common history of pre-Proto-Germanic speakers throughout the Nordic Bronze Age.

From the time of their earliest attestation, the Germanic varieties are divided into three groups, West, East and North Germanic. Their exact relation is difficult to determine from the sparse evidence of runic inscriptions, and they remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration period, so that some individual varieties are difficult to classify.

The 6th century Lombardic language, for instance, may constitute an originally either North or East Germanic variety that became assimilated to West Germanic as the Lombards settled at the Elbe. The Western group would have formed in the late Jastorf culture, the Eastern group may be derived from the 1st century variety of Gotland (see Old Gutnish), leaving southern Sweden as the original location of the Northern group . The earliest coherent Germanic text preserved is the 4th century Gothic translation of the New Testament by Ulfilas. Early testimonies of West Germanic are in Old High German and Old English from about the 9th century and Old Dutch around the 6th century. North Germanic is only attested in scattered runic inscriptions, as Proto-Norse, until it evolves into Old Norse by about 800. Longer runic inscriptions survive from the 8th and 9th centuries (Eggjum stone, Rök stone), longer texts in the Latin alphabet survive from the 12th century (Íslendingabók), and some skaldic poetry held to date back to as early as the 9th century.

By about the 10th century, the varieties had diverged enough to make intercomprehensibility difficult. The linguistic contact of the Viking settlers of the Danelaw with the Anglo-Saxons left traces in the English language, and is suspected to have facilitated the collapse of Old English grammar that resulted in Middle English from the 12th century.

The East Germanic languages were marginalized from the end of the Migration period. The Burgundians, Goths and Vandals became linguistically assimilated to their respective neighbors by about the 7th century, with only Crimean Gothic lingering on until the 18th century.

During the early Middle Ages, the West Germanic languages were separated by the insular development of Middle English on one hand, and by the High German consonant shift on the continent on the other, resulting in Upper German and Low Saxon, with graded intermediate Central German varieties. By Early modern times, the span had extended into considerable differences, ranging from Highest Alemannic in the South to Northern Low Saxon in the North, and although both extremes are considered German, they are hardly mutually intelligible. The southernmost varieties have completed the second sound shift, while the northern varieties remained unaffected by the consonant shift.

The North Germanic languages, on the other hand, remained more unified, with the larger languages largely retaining mutual intelligibility into modern times.

Classification

Note that divisions between subfamilies of Germanic are rarely precisely defined; most form continuous clines, with adjacent varieties being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not.

Diachronic

Iron Age
500 BC–AD 200 		Proto-Germanic
East Germanic West Germanic North Germanic
South Germanic Anglo-Frisian
Migration period
AD 200–700 		Gothic, Lombardic1   Old Frankish Old Saxon Old Frisian Old English Proto-Norse
Vandalic, Burgundian, Old High German
Early Middle Ages
700–1100 		Old Low Franconian Runic Old West Norse Runic Old East Norse
Middle Ages
1100–1350 		Middle High German Middle Dutch Middle Saxon Middle English Older Scots Old Icelandic Old Norwegian Early Old Danish Early Old Swedish Early Old Gutnish
Late Middle Ages2
1350–1500 		Late Old Icelandic Old Faroese Old Norn Middle Norwegian Late Old Danish Late Old Swedish Late Old Gutnish
Early Modern Age
1500–1700 		Crimean Gothic Early Modern High German Low Franconian varieties, including Dutch Middle Frisian Early Modern English Middle Scots Icelandic Faroese Norn Norwegian Danish Swedish Gutnish
Modern Age
1700 to present 		all extinct High German varieties Low Saxon varieties Frisian varieties English varieties Scots varieties extinct3 extinct3

General Note: The position of the languages in the diachronic does not represent their relation to each other linguistically.

Note 1: There are conflicting opinions on the classification of Lombardic. Contrary to its isolated position in the table above, it has also been classified as close to either Upper German or Old Saxon. See the article on the Lombardic language for more information.

Note 2: Late Middle Ages refers to the post Black Death period. Especially for the language situation in Norway this event was important.

Note 3: The speakers of Norn were assimilated to speak the Modern Scots varieties, and the Gutnish language is today practically a dialect of Swedish.

Contemporary

Mentioned here are only the principal contemporary varieties; individual articles linked to below contain larger family trees. For example, many Low Saxon varieties are discussed on Low Saxon besides just Northern Low Saxon and Plautdietsch.

Vocabulary comparison

Several of the terms in the table below have had semantic drift. For example, the form 'Sterben' and other terms for 'die' are cognate with the English word 'starve'. There is also at least one example of a common borrowing from a Non-Germanic source (ounce and its cognates from Latin).
English Scots Frisian Afrikaans Dutch Low Saxon standard German Gothic Icelandic Faroese Swedish Danish Norwegian (Bokmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk)
Apple Aiple Appel Appel Appel Appel Apfel Aplus Epli Epli The cognate means 'potato'. The correct word is 'Súrepli'. Äpple Æble Eple Eple
Board Buird Board Bord Bord Boord Brett Baúrd Borð Borð Bord Bræt Bord Bord
Book Beuk Boek Boek Boek Book Buch Bōka Bók Bók Bok Bog Bok Bok
Breast Breest Boarst Bors Borst Bost Brust Brusts Brjóst Bróst Bröst Bryst Bryst Brjost
Brown Broun Brún Bruin Bruin Bruun Braun Bruns Brúnn Brúnur Brun Brun Brun Brun
Day Day Dei Dag Dag Dag Tag Dags Dagur Dagur Dag Dag Dag Dag
Dead Deid Dea Dood Dood Dood Tot Dauþs Dauður Deyður Död Død Død Daud
Die Dee Stjerre Sterf Sterven Döen/ Starven Sterben Diwan Deyja Doyggja Dö Dø Dø Døy
Enough Eneuch Genôg Genoeg Genoeg Noog Genug Ganōhs Nóg Nóg/ Nógmikið Nog Nok Nok Nog The bokmål borrowing 'nok' is more commonly used.
Finger Finger Finger Vinger Vinger Finger Figgrs Fingur Fingur Finger Finger Finger Finger
Give Gie Jan Gee Geven Geven Geben Giban Gefa Geva Giva / Ge Give Gi Gje(va)
Glass Gless Glês Glas Glas Glas Glas Gler Glas Glas Glas Glass Glas
Gold Gowd Goud Goud Goud Gold Gold Gulþ Gull Gull Guld/ Gull Guld Gull Gull
Hand Haund Hân Hand Hand Hand Hand Handus Hönd Hond Hand Hånd Hånd Hand
Head Heid Holle Kop Hoofd/ Kop Kopp Haupt/ Kopf Háubiþ Höfuð Høvd/ Høvur Huvud Hoved Hode Hovud
High Heich Heech Hoog Hoog Hoog Hoch Háuh Hár Høg/ur Hög Høj Høy Høg
Home Hame Hiem Heim Archaic: now only used in compound words such as 'heimwee' (homesickness). Heim Heim Háimōþ Heim Heim Hem Hjem Hjem Heim
Hook Heuk Haak Haak Haak Haken Krókur Krókur/ Ongul Hake/ Krok Hage/ Krog Hake/ Krok Hake/ Krok
House Hoose Hûs Huis Huis Huus Haus Hūs Hús Hús Hus Hus Hus Hus
Many Mony Menich Menige Menige Mennig Manch Manags Margir Mangir/ Nógvir Många Mange Mange Mange
Moon Muin Moanne Maan Maan Maan Mond Mēna Tungl/ Máni Máni/ Tungl Måne Måne Måne Måne
Night Nicht Nacht Nag Nacht Natt/ Nacht Nahts Nótt Nótt Natt Natt Natt Natt Natt
No Nae Nee Nee Nee(n) Nee Nein/ Nö/ Nee Nē Nei Nei Nej Nej Nei Nei
Old Auld Âld Oud Oud, Gammel Old and decayed. Oll Alt Sineigs Gamall (but: eldri, elstur) Gamal (but: eldri, elstur) Gammal (but: äldre, äldst) Gammel (but: ældre, ældst) Gammel (but: eldre, eldst) Gam(m)al (but: eldre, eldst)
One Ane Ien Een Een Een Eins Áins Einn Ein En En En Ein
Ounce Unce Ons Ons Ons Unze Únsa Uns Unse Unse Unse
Snow Snaw Snie Sneeu Sneeuw Snee Schnee Snáiws Snjór Kavi/ Snjógvur Snö Sne Snø Snø
Stone Stane Stien Steen Steen Steen Stein Stáins Steinn Steinur Sten Sten Sten Stein
That That Dat Dit Dat, Die Dat (Dit) Das Þata Það Tað Det Det Det Det
Two Twa Twa Twee Twee Twee Zwei/ Zwo Twái Tveir/ Tvo Tveir (/Tvá) Två To To To Dialectally tvo/ två/ tvei (m), tvæ (f), tvau (n).
Who Wha Wie Wie Wie Wokeen Wer Ƕas (Hwas) Hver Hvør Vem Hvem Hvem Kven
Worm Wirm Wjirm Wurm Wurm/ Worm Worm Wurm Maþa Maðkur, Ormur Maðkur/ Ormur Mask/ Orm The cognate means 'snake'. Orm Mark/ Orm Makk/ Orm The cognate means 'snake'.

Notes

See also

External links

Germanic languages
Afrikaans | Danish | Dutch | English | Faroese | Frisian |
German | Icelandic | Norwegian | Scots | Swedish | Wymysojer | Yiddish

[[zh-min-nan:Tek-gí-hē]]

 

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