Governor-General

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A Governor-General (in Canada always, and frequently in India prior to the abolition of the monarchy, Governor General) is most generally a governor of high rank, or a principal governor ranking above 'ordinary' governors ["Governor General" definition on Dictionar.com] (retrieved February 14th, 2006). The most common contemporary usage of the term is to refer to the royally-appointed territorial governor of a region, or royal representative in a country or realm. The term is thus sometimes taken to be the same as viceroy or royal governor.

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British Colonialism and the Governor[-]General

Lord Tweedsmuir was Governor General of Canada from 1935 to 1940. The uniform worn here was the customary ceremonial dress for Commonwealth Governors General until recently.

The term Governor[-]General is most likely to be used in the context of the former British Empire or a former British colony that is now a Commonwealth realm — most Commonwealth countries are republics.

Governors[-]General notionally hold the prerogative powers of the monarch they are representing, and also hold the executive power of the country to which they are assigned. This means that the Governor[-]General has the power to certify or veto law (Royal Assent), and is also the head of the armed forces in his or her territory. History shows many examples of governors[-]general using their prerogative and executive powers but nowadays it is rare to see these powers being used unilaterally, in line with modern constitutional convention. The monarch can overrule a governor[-]general — in the past this was cumbersome due to the often large distances from London; in modern times overruling a governor[-]general can be impractical or impermissible due to local conditions or sensitivities (as demonstrated in the Australian constitutional crisis of 1975) [Letter from the Queen's Private Secretary to the Speaker of the House of Representatives of Australia of 17 November 1975], at The Whitlam Dismissal, retrieved February 15, 2006..

Because of the Governor[-]General's control of the military in the territory, the post was as much a military appointment as a civil one. Indeed, right up until modern times, the Governor[-]General's official attire was the court dress, Windsor uniform or other military uniform, but this practice been abandoned in most countries in modern times.

In some colonies, the title of the royal representative was never Governor[-]General. The King's representative in New Zealand, for instance, was simply titled Governor (earlier, even Lieutenant-Governor, still lower in rank) until after the country became a dominion.

Modern Times

In former British Colonies

Australian Governor-General Sir John Kerr
Kerr controversially dismissed the Australian Prime Minister in 1975.

Today in former colonies which are still Commonwealth realms, the Governor[-]General acts strictly under the instruction of the national Prime Minister, most often in accordance with the Westminster system. In particular, see the history of the Governor-General of Australia. The Governor[-]General is still the local representative of the Sovereign as Head of state and performs the same duties as they did historically, though their role is almost purely ceremonial. A rare and controversial exception occurred in 1975, when the Governor-General of Australia, Sir John Kerr, dismissed the Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam.

The Governor[-]General is usually a person with a distinguished record of public service, often a retired politician, judge or military commander; but some countries have also appointed prominent figures from sport, academia, the clergy, philanthrophy or the news media to the office. The Governor-General is formally appointed by the Monarch, generally following the specific request of the Prime Minister of the country concerned; Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands are the only realms that elect their Governors-General in some form: selection by a parliamentary vote.

In former colonies no longer part of the Commonwealth, the Governor[-]General and British monarch have been replaced by an elected (sometimes non-executive) head of state. See the article on Commonwealth realms for a list of current and former members.

Commonwealth usages

Today the title Governor[-]General is used in countries which recognise the British Sovereign, currently Queen Elizabeth II, as the head of state, or monarch, excluding the United Kingdom.

In its modern usage, the term "Governor[-]General" originated in those British colonies which became self-governing "Dominions," as they were at one time styled, of the British Empire; (examples are Australia, Canada and New Zealand). With the exception of New Zealand, each of these federated colonies' previously constituent colonies already had a Governor, and the Crown's representative to the federated "Dominion" was therefore given the superior title Governor[-]General. New Zealand was granted Dominion status in 1907, but as it never was a federal state there was no pressing need to change the gubernatorial title. Finally on 28 June 1917 the Earl of Liverpool was appointed the first Governor-General of New Zealand. Another non-federal state, Newfoundland, was a dominion for 16 years with the Queen's representative retaining the title of Governor throughout this time.

Since the 1950's, the title Governor[-]General was given to all representatives of the Sovereign in independent Commonwealth realms. In these cases, the former colonial Governor was "upgraded" (sometimes for the same incumbent) to the title of Governor[-]General upon independence as the nature of the office became a universal 'constitutional figurehead' position, no longer a symbol of colonial rule.

In these countries, now known as Commonwealth Realms, the Governor[-]General acts as the Monarch's representative, performing all the ceremonial and constitutional functions of a Head of state.

The Governor[-]General may exercise almost all the reserve powers of the Monarch. Except in rare cases, the Governor[-]General only acts in accordance with constitutional convention and upon the advice of the Prime Minister. A rare and controversial case of a Governor-General independently exercising his authority occurred in 1975, when the Governor-General of Australia, Sir John Kerr, dismissed the Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam.

In principle, the crown could overrule a Governor[-]General, but this has not happened in modern times.

Appointment

Tim Healy
First Governor-General of the Irish Free State

Until the 1920s, the Governors[-]General were British, appointed on the advice of the British Government, and acted as the representative of the British Government in each Dominion. The Governor[-]General could be instructed by the Colonial Secretary on the exercise of some of his functions and duties, such as the use or withholding of the Royal Assent from legislation. In 1931, as a result of discussions at the 1926 Commonwealth Conference and the resulting Balfour Declaration, the Statute of Westminster was enacted and this aspect of the role was abolished. The Governor[-]General became the direct representative of the country's Sovereign only, and governmental relations with the United Kingdom were placed in the hands of a British High commissioner in each country.

Also, in 1929, the Australian Prime Minister James Scullin established the right of a Dominion Prime Minister to advise the Monarch directly on the appointment of a Governor[-]General, by insisting that his choice (Sir Isaac Isaacs, an Australian) prevail over the recommendation of the British government. The convention was gradually established throughout the Commonwealth that the Governor[-]General is a citizen of the country concerned, and is appointed on the advice of the government of that country, with no input from the British government. The first Governor General of India was Lord Mountbatten, who had been the last Viceroy; the second (and last) Governor General was Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari; thereafter the post was replaced with the largely equivalent post of non-executive President under the 1950 Indian Constitution.

Commonwealth Countries with Governors[-]General

Commonwealth Realm	From
Canada	1867	[Website]
Australia	1901	[Website]
New Zealand	1917	[Website]
Jamaica	1962
Barbados	1966	[Website]
Bahamas	1973	[Website]
Grenada	1974
Papua New Guinea	1975
Solomon Islands	1978
Tuvalu	1978
Saint Lucia	1979	[Website]
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	1979
Antigua and Barbuda	1981
Belize	1981
Saint Kitts and Nevis	1983

Clicking on the country above will take you the relevant Governor-General article.

The Governor[-]General is usually a person with a distinguished record of public service, often a retired politician, judge or military commander; but some countries have also appointed prominent figures from sport, academia, the clergy, philanthrophy or the news media to the office. The Governor[-]General is formally appointed by the Monarch, following the specific request of the Prime Minister of the country concerned. Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands are the only realms that elect their Governors-General in some form: selection by a parliamentary vote.

Other attributes

Different realms have different constitutional arrangements governing who acts in place of the Governor[-]General following his or her death, resignation, or incapacity.

In Australia, the government of the day nominates a person as "Administrator of the Commonwealth" to perform the necessary official functions, pending a decision and consultation with the Sovereign about a permanent replacement as Governor-General. By convention, the Administrator has usually been the senior Governor of the Australian states, but there is nothing to prevent a different person from being appointed.
In Canada, Jamaica, and New Zealand, it is the Chief Justice.
In Papua New Guinea, it is the Speaker of the House.
Many Caribbean countries have a specific office of "Deputy Governor-General."

Most Commonwealth countries that are now republics, with the President as head of state, were originally Commonwealth realms, with Governors[-]General. Some became parliamentary republics, like India, where the presidency is a ceremonial post, similar that of the British monarch, while others, like Ghana, adopted a presidential system like the United States. Australia held a referendum on becoming a parliamentary republic in 1999, but this was rejected, partly due to disagreements over whether the President should be chosen by Parliament, as was proposed, or by popular vote.

The current governments of Barbados and Jamaica have announced plans to hold referenda on becoming republics, in each case with a non-executive President replacing the Queen as head of state, as occurred in Trinidad and Tobago in 1976. It is not known whether these plans will proceed, however, nor whether the referenda would approve the changes.

Traditionally, the Governor[-]General's official attire was the court dress, Windsor uniform or other military uniform, but this practice been abandoned in most jurisdictions in modern times. In South Africa, the Governors-General of the Union nominated by the Afrikaner Nationalist government chose not to wear the uniform. Most Governors[-]General continue to wear ceremonial medals on their clothing during special occasions, however.

The Governor[-]General's official residence is usually called Government House. The Governor-General of the Irish Free State resided in the then Viceregal Lodge in Phoenix Park, Dublin, but the government of Éamon de Valera sought to downgrade the office, and the last Governor-General, Domhnall Ua Buachalla, did not reside there. The office was abolished in 1936.

In most Commonwealth realms, the flag of the Governor[-]General has been the standard pattern of a blue flag with the Royal Crest (lion standing on a crown) above a scroll with the name of the jurisdiction. In Canada, however, this was replaced with a lion (with a crown) clasping a maple leaf. In the Solomon Islands, the scroll is replaced with a two-headed frigate bird motif, while in Fiji, the former Governor-General's flag featured a whale's tooth.

Governors[-]General are accorded the style of His/Her Excellency. This style is also extended to their spouses, whether female or male (for an example of the latter case, see Jean-Daniel Lafond).

Former British colonies

The title has been used in many British colonial entities that either no longer exist or are now independent countries.

in the Americas

The Federation of the West Indies (Antigua, Barbados, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Turks and Caicos Islands), less commonly referred to as British Caribbean Federation, had a single governor-general during its short existence, 3 January 1958 - 31 May 1962: Governor-General Patrick George Thomas Buchan-Hepburn, Baron Hailes (b. 1901 - d. 1974).

in Asia

British India (the present India, Pakistan and Bangladesh and till 1937 Burma, the present Myanmar) - see also Viceroy

in Africa

1 August 1953 - 31 December 1963 The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland also called the Central African Federation) comprising Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) and Nyasaland (now Malawi)
Sudan as Anglo-Egyptian Condominium between 1899 and 1st January 1956.
Nigeria until independence on 1st October 1960.

Former Commonwealth realms

In Africa

Gambia, two incumbents:
*18 February 1965 - 9 February 1966 Sir John Warburton Paul (b. 1916 - d. 2004), formerly the last colonial Governor
*9 February 1966 - 24 April 1970 Sir Farimang Mamadi Singateh (b. 1912); the country became a republic with Dawda Jawara, formerly Prime Minister, as executive President.
Ghana:
*6 March 1957 - 24 June 1957 Sir Charles Noble Arden-Clarke (b. 1898 - d. 1962), formerly the last colonial Governor
*24 June 1957 - 1 July 1960 William Francis Hare, Earl of Listowel (b. 1906 - d. 1997); the country became the first in Africa to become a republic within the Commonwealth, with Kwame Nkrumah, formerly Prime Minister, as executive President.
Kenya: 12 December 1963 - 12 December 1964 Malcolm John MacDonald (b. 1901 - d. 1981), formerly the last colonial Governor; the country became a republic with Jomo Kenyatta, formerly Prime Minister, as executive President.
Malawi: 6 July 1964 - 6 July 1966 Sir Glyn Smallwood Jones (b. 1908 - d. 1992), formerly the last colonial Governor (until 1963 of 'Nyasaland') the country became a republic with Kamuzu Banda, formerly Prime Minister, as executive President.
Mauritius: Sir John Shaw Rennie (12 March–3 September 1968) formerly the last colonial Governor. The country became a republic on 12 March 1992 with the last Governor General Veerasamy Ringadoo as the first ceremonial President.
Nigeria:
*1st October 1960 - 16 November 1960 Sir James Wilson Robertson (b. 1899 - d. 1983) Non-party (previously colonial Governor-General)
*16 November 1960 - 1 October 1963 Benjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe (b. 1904 - d. 1996) NCNC; became first ceremonial President of the Federal Republic
Sierra Leone (See also Governor-General of Sierra Leone):
*27 April 1961 - 27 April 1962 Sir Maurice Henry Dorman (b. 1902 - d. 1993), formerly the last colonial Governor
*27 April 1962 - April 1967 Sir Henry Josiah Lightfoot Boston (b. 1898 - d. 1969) (acting to 27 July 1962)
*April 1967 - 18 April 1968 Andrew Terence Juxon-Smith (acting)(b. 1933 - d. 1996)
*18 April 1968 - 22 April 1968 John Amadu Bangura (acting) (b. 1930 - d. 1971)
*22 April 1968 - 31 March 1971 Banja Tejan-Sie (from 1970, Sir Banja Tejan-Sie) (b. 1917 - d. 2000)
*31 March 1971 - 19 April 1971 Christopher Cole (acting) (b. 1921 - d.after 1990); briefly first President, before being succeeded by Prime Minster Siaka Stevens, who became executive President.
South Africa from 31 May 1910 when Cape, Natal, Orange Free State and Transvaal united as a dominion (Union of South Africa) until the 31 May 1961 declaration of the Republic of South Africa. The last Governor-General of the Union of South Africa, Charles Robberts Swart, became the first State President of South Africa.
Tanganyika (now Tanzania): 9 December 1961 - 9 December 1962 Sir Richard Gordon Turnbull (b. 1909 - d. 1998), formerly the last colonial Governor; the country became a republic with Julius Nyerere, formerly Prime Minister, as executive President.
Uganda: 9 October 1962 - 9 October 1963 Sir Walter Fleming Coutts (b. 1912 - d. 1988), formerly the last colonial Governor; the country became a republic with Frederick Mutesa, Kabaka of Buganda, as ceremonial President.

In Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), a unique situation arose following the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965, unrecognised by the United Kingdom. The Rhodesian Front government of Ian Smith recognised Queen Elizabeth II as 'Queen of Rhodesia', but refused to recognise the authority of her Governor Sir Humphrey Gibbs, whose duties were performed by an Officer Administering the Government, Clifford Dupont (b. 1905 - d. 1978). Dupont served in the post until 2 March 1970, when Rhodesia was declared a republic (an act also unrecognised internationally) and he became President. The country became an independent republic within the Commonwealth as Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980.

Zambia and the Seychelles became republics within the Commonwealth on independence.

In the Americas

Guyana:
*26 May 1966 - 16 December 1966 Sir Richard Edmonds Luyt (b. 1915 - d. 1994), formerly the last colonial Governor
*16 December 1966 - 10 November 1969 Sir David James Gardiner Rose (b. 1923 - d. 1969)
*10 November 1969 - 22 February 1970 Sir Edward Victor Luckhoo (acting) (b. 1912 - d. 1998); next under a President
Trinidad and Tobago:
*31 August 1962 - 15 September 1972 Sir Solomon Hochoy (b. 1905 - d. 1983), formerly the last colonial Governor
*15 September 1972 - 1 August 1976 Sir Ellis Emmanuel Innocent Clarke (b. 1917)

In Asia

India
*15 August 1947 - 21 June 1948 Louis Francis Mountbatten, Earl Mountbatten of Burma (s.a.), formerly the last colonial Viceroy
*21 June 1948 - 26 January 1950 Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (b. 1878 - d. 1972); became the first republic within the Commonwealth
Pakistan
*15 August 1947 - 11 September 1948 Mohammad Ali Jinnah (b. 1876 - d. 1948) ML
*14 September 1948 - 17 October 1951 Khwaja Nazimuddin (b. 1894 - d. 1964) ML
*17 October 1951 - 6 October 1955 Ghulam Mohammad (b. 1895 - d. 1956) ML
*6 October 1955 - 23 March 1956 Iskandar Ali Mirza (b. 1899 - d. 1969) Mil; since then a republic
Ceylon (now Sri Lanka):
*4 February 1948 - 6 July 1949 Sir Henry Monck-Mason Moore (b. 1887 - d. 1964), previously the last colonial Governor)
*6 July 1949 - 17 July 1954 Herwald Ramsbotham, Baron Soulbury (b. 1887 - d. 1971)
*17 July 1954 - 2 March 1962 Sir Oliver Ernest Goonetilleke (b. 1892 - d. 1978)
*2 March 1962 - 22 May 1972 William Gopallawa (b. 1897 - d. 1981)); became the first President of the republic of Sri Lanka

In Europe

Ireland Governor-General of the Irish Free State dominion 6 December 1922 until 29 December 1937.
Malta:
*21 September 1964 - 4 July 1971 Sir Maurice Henry Dorman (b. 1902 - d. 1993), formerly the last colonial Governor
*4 July 1971 - 13 December 1974 Sir Anthony Joseph Mamo (b. 1909); became first President of Malta

Cyprus became a republic on independence.

In Oceania

Fiji:
*10 October 1970 - 13 January 1973 Sir Robert Sidney Foster (b. 1913 - d. 2005), formerly the last colonial Governor
*13 January 1973 - 12 February 1983 Ratu Sir George Cakobau (b. 1912 - d. 1989)
*12 February 1983 - 6 October 1987 Ratu Sir Penaia Ganilau (b. 1918 - d. 1993); it became a republic under a President on 5 December 1987

Other Colonial and similar usages

French

The equivalent word in French is gouverneur général

From 1887 to 1945 the French appointed a Governor-General to govern French Indo-China (now Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia).
Since its creation on 16 June 1895 in French West Africa (AOF), till 4 Apr 1957; the last stayed on as first of two High commissioners
From 28 June 1908 (previously it had a Commissaire général, i.e. commissoner general) to 4 April 1957 (the last stayed on as first of three High commissioners) in French Equatorial Africa (AEF); during several periods he also acted as Governor of the constitutive colony Congo Brazzaville

Netherlands

From 1691 to 1948 the Dutch appointed a Gouverneur-generaal ('Governor-General') to govern the Netherlands East Indies, now Indonesia.

While in the Caribbean, various other titles were used, Curaçao had three Governors-General between 1816 and 1820:

1816 - 1819 Albert Kikkert
1819 - 1820 Petrus Bernardus van Starkenborgh
1820 Isaäk Johannes Rammelman Elsevier

Spanish

Since 21 November 1564 the Spanish colony Islas Filipinas had governors-general, subordinated to the viceroyalty of New Spain (in Mexico) to 1821.

U.S.

From 1905 to 1935 the Philippines (since 13 August 1898 a U.S territory; first under three Military and two ordinary Governors) was administered by a series of Governors General appointed by the United States.

Other Western usages

Governor-General in the Swedish Realm
From 1636 to 1815, the Governors-General of Sweden typically were appointed for the Swedish Dominions on the eastern side of the Baltic and in northern Germany, but occasionally also for Scania.
From 1809 to 1918 there were Russian Governors-General in the Grand Duchy of Finland and various other Governorates-General.
From 1939 to 1944, during the German occupation of Poland, part of the country was designated the General Government and the Nazi official Hans Frank had the title Governor-General (Generalgouverneur für die besetzten polnischen Gebiete).

Asian counterparts

From 1644 to 1911, in Qing Dynasty China, a Governor General or zongdu (Chinese: 总督) was the highest official of joint military and civil affairs in one or several provinces (alternately translated as Viceroy)
Imperial Japan:
*From 1895 to 1945, Taiwan was administered by the Japanese Governor-General of Taiwan.
* From 1910 to 1945, Korea was administered by the Japanese Governor-General of Korea.

Sources and references

(incomplete)

[WorldStatesmen]

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