Greek language
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Greek (Ελληνικά, IPA [e̞ˌliniˈka] - "Hellenic") is an Indo-European language with a documented history of 3,500 years, the longest in the Indo-European family if the Anatolian languages are excluded. Today, it is spoken by approximately 15 million people in Greece, Cyprus, Albania, Bulgaria, the Republic of Macedonia, Italy and Turkey. There are also many Greek emigrant communities around the world (see Greek diaspora), such as those in Melbourne, Australia which has the third largest urban Greek population in the world, after Athens and Thessaloniki.
Greek has been written in the Greek alphabet (the first to introduce vowels), since the 9th century BC in Greece (before that in Linear B), and the 4th century BC in Cyprus (before that in Cypriot syllabary). Greek literature has a continuous history of nearly 3000 years.
History
| History of the Greek language (see also: Greek alphabet) |
| Proto-Greek (c. 2000 BC)
|
| Mycenaean (c. 1600–1100 BC)
|
| Ancient Greek (c. 800–300 BC) Dialects: Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, Attic-Ionic, Doric, Macedonian; Homeric Greek. |
| Koine Greek (from c. 300 BC)
|
| Medieval Greek (c. 330–1453)
|
| Modern Greek (from 1453) Dialects: Cappadocian, Cypriot, Demotic, Griko, Katharevousa, Pontic, Tsakonian, Yevanic |
This article does not cover the reconstructed history of Greek prior to the use of writing. For more information, see main article on Proto-Greek language.
Greek has been spoken in the Balkan Peninsula since the 2nd millennium BC. The earliest evidence of this is found in the Linear B tablets in the "Room of the Chariot Tablets", a LMII-context (c. 1500 BC) region of Knossos in Crete. The later Greek alphabet is unrelated to Linear B, and is believed to be derived from the Phoenician alphabet (abjad); with minor modifications, it is still used today. Greek is conventionally divided into the following periods:
- Mycenaean Greek: the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 16th century BC onwards.
- Classical Greek (also known as Ancient Greek): In its various dialects was the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of Greek civilization. It was widely known throughout the Roman empire. Classical Greek fell into disuse in western Europe in the Middle Ages, but remained known in the Byzantine world, and was reintroduced to the rest of Europe with the Fall of Constantinople and Greek migration to Italy.
- Hellenistic Greek (also known as Koine Greek): The fusion of various ancient Greek dialects with Attic (the dialect of Athens) resulted in the creation of the first common Greek dialect, which gradually turned into one of the world's first international languages. Koine Greek can be initially traced within the armies and conquered territories of Alexander the Great, but after the Hellenistic colonisation of the known world, it was spoken from Egypt to the fringes of India. After the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial diglossy of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. Through Koine Greek it is also traced the origin of Christianity, as the Apostles used it to preach in Greece and the Greek-speaking world. It is also known as the Alexandrian dialect, Post-Classical Greek or even New Testament Greek (after its most famous work of literature).
- Medieval Greek: The continuation of Hellenistic Greek during medieval Greek history as the official and vernacular (if not the literary nor the ecclesiastic) language of the Byzantine Empire, and continued to be used until, and after the fall of that Empire in the 15th century. Also known as Byzantine Greek.
- Modern Greek: Stemming independently from Koine Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the late Byzantine period (as early as 11th century).
In the meantime, both forms of Greek had naturally converged and Standard Modern Greek (Κοινή Νεοελληνική - Common Modern Greek), the form of Greek used for all official purposes and in education in Greece today, emerged.
It has been claimed that an "educated" speaker of the modern language can understand an ancient text, but this is surely as much a function of education as of the similarity of the languages. Still, Koinē, the version of Greek used to write the New Testament and the Septuagint, is relatively easy to understand for modern speakers.
Greek words have been widely borrowed into the European languages: astronomy, democracy, philosophy, thespian, etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as a basis for coinages: anthropology, photography, isomer, biomechanics etc. and form, with Latin words, the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary. See English words of Greek origin, and List of Greek words with English derivatives.
| History of Greece series
| |
|---|---|
| Aegean Civilization | before 1600 BC |
| Mycenaean Greece | ca. 1600–1200 BC |
| Greek Dark Ages | ca. 1200–800 BC |
| Ancient Greece | 776–323 BC |
| Hellenistic Greece | 323 BC–146 BC |
| Roman Greece | 146 BC–330 AD |
| Byzantine Greece | 330 AD–1453 AD |
| Ottoman Greece | 1453–1832 |
| Modern Greece | after 1832 |
| Topics | |
| Greek language | Greek literature |
| Military history | Names of the Greeks |
Classification
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient languages which were probably most closely related to it, ancient Macedonian (which may have been a dialect of Greek) and Phrygian,#redirect [[Template:Fact]] are not well enough documented to permit detailed comparison. Among living languages, Armenian seems to be the most closely related language.#redirect [[Template:Fact]]Geographic distribution
Modern Greek is spoken by about 15 million people mainly in Greece and Cyprus. There are also Greek-speaking populations in Georgia, Ukraine, Egypt, Turkey, Albania, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Southern Italy. The language is spoken also in many other countries where Greeks have settled, including Armenia, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Netherlands, Sweden, United Kingdom, and the United States.Official status
Greek is the official language of Greece where it is spoken by about 99.5% of the population. It is also, alongside Turkish, the official language of Cyprus. Due to the membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the 20 official languages of the European Union.Phonology
This section generally describes the post-Classic phonology of the Greek language. See Ancient Greek phonology, History of the Greek language and Iotacism for historical issues.
- All phonetic transcriptions in this section use the International Phonetic Alphabet
Vowel sounds
Greek has 5 vowel phonemes:
| Front | Back | |
|---|---|---|
| Close | i | u |
| Mid | e̞ | o̞ |
| Open | a |
Close vowels, when found in unstressed final syllables, tend to be voiceless, particularly if they are between voiceless consonants [e.g.: φάσης /ˈfasis/ → /ˈfasi̥s/ (→ /fasː/) = "of phase" (genitive case)].
Consonants
Greek has a repertoire of 29 consonant sounds. The number of phonemes depends on the analysis, but may be as few as 15, assuming for example that the sound [b] is represented in the underlying form as /mp/, which is also its standard orthographic representation. (cf. Newton)
| Bilabial | Labiodental | Dental | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | p b | t d | c ɟ | k ɡ | ||
| Nasal | m | ɱ | n | ɲ | ŋ | |
| Trill | r | |||||
| Fricative | f v | θ ð | s z | ç ʝ | x ɣ | |
| Affricate | ʦ ʣ | |||||
| Approximant | j | |||||
| Lateral approximant | l | ʎ |
Greek /p/, /t/ and /k/ are not aspirated as they are in English. They tend to be voiced to [b], [d] and [ɡ] in the Cretan dialect. The letter <ρ> is generally pronounced [r], but tends to be pronounced [ɾ] in intervocalic position.
Standard Modern Greek does not have double consonants within words, although some dialects (notably Cypriot) do.
Sandhi rules
Greek has certain sandhi rules, some represented in the orthography, some not.
/n/ before bilabials and velars becomes [m] and [ŋ] respectively, and is written <μ> (συμπάθεια, "sympathy") and <γ> (συγκρητισμός, "syncretism"). Before the labiodental fricatives <φ> and <β>, it is also written <μ>, but pronounced [ɱ] (συμφωνία, "symphony").
The combination <μπ> is pronounced [mb] after vowels (but often reduced to [b]) and everywhere else [b]. In some words, especially in Northern dialects, this can also be pronounced [mp].
After vowels, the combinations <γγ> and <γκ> are pronounced [ŋɡ] (or [ŋɟ] before the front vowels /e/ and /i/), but are often reduced to [ɡ] (or [ɟ]) in everyday speech. <γκ> is always pronounced [ɡ] (or [ɟ]) at the beginning of a word, while <γγ> never occurs in this position.
The combination <ντ> is pronounced [nd] after vowels (but often reduced to [d]) and everywhere else [d]. In some words, especially in Northern dialects, this can also be pronounced [nt].
The sounds /k/ and /ɡ/, before the front vowels /e/ and /i/, are palatalized, becoming [c] and [ɟ]. In some dialects, notably those of Crete and the Mani, they become [ʨ] and [ʥ].
The word ἐστὶ (estí, IPA /esˈti/), which means "is" in Ancient Greek (q.v. Modern Greek είναι), gains a "euphonic" n. in Modern Greek, the negative adverb δεν and the accusative articles τον and την lose the final /n/, depending on the beginning letter of the next word (if it's a consonant, /n/ is usually dropped). In the phrase δεν πειράζει, which means "it doesn't matter", instead of being dropped, n is assimilated into the second word and, following the example above, np is pronounced [mp] in Northern Greece and [mb] in Southern Greece, thus being pronounced [ðempi'razi] or [ðembi'razi].
Some of these rules are optional, and reflect the formality of speech. While everyday spoken Greek sounds artificial if the sandhi rules are not used, a formal or official speech may sound equally awkward if sandhi rules are used.
Orthography
The Greek vowel letters with their pronunciation are: <α> /a/, <ε> /e/, <η> /i/, <ι> /i/, <ο> /o/, <υ> /i/, <ω> /o/. There are also vowel digraphs which are phonetically monophthongal: <αι> /e/, <ει> /i/, <οι> /i/, <ου> /u/, <υι> /i/. The three digraphs <αυ>, <ευ> and <ηυ> are pronounced /av/, /ev/ and /iv/ except when followed by unvoiced consonants, in which case they are pronounced /af/, /ef/ and /if/.
Modern Greek has also four diphthongs: <αη> (or <άη>) /aj/, <αϊ> (or <άι>) /aj/, <οη> (or <όη>) /oj/ and <οϊ> (or <όι>) /oj/ (diphthongs can better be transcribed using the IPA non-syllabic diacritic under /i/ instead of the approximant /j/).
The Greek letters <β> and <δ> are pronounced /v/ and /ð/ respectively. The letter <γ> is generally pronounced /ɣ/, but before the mid or close front vowels, it is pronounced [ʝ] (or [ʑ] in some dialects, notably those of Crete and the Mani).
The letters <θ>, <φ> and <χ> are pronounced /θ/, /f/ and /x/. The letter <χ>, before mid or close front vowels, is pronounced [ç] (or [ɕ] in some dialects, notably those of Crete and the Mani). The letter <ξ> stands for /ks/ and <ψ> stands for /ps/. The digraphs <γγ> and <γκ> are generally pronounced /g/ in everyday speech, but are pronounced [ɟ] before the front vowels /e/ and /i/. When these digraphs are preceded by a vowel, they are pronounced /ŋɡ/ in formal speech ([ŋɟ] before the front vowels /e/ and /i/. The digraph <γγ> may be pronounced /ŋɣ/ in some words ([ŋʝ] before the front vowels /e/ and /i/.
Grammar
Modern Greek is still largely a synthetic language. It is one of the few Indo-European languages that has retained a synthetic passive. Noticeable changes in grammar (compared to classical Greek) include the loss of the dative, the optative mood, the infinitive, the dual number, and the participles (except the past participle); the adoption of the gerund; the reduction in the number of noun declensions, and the number of distinct forms in each declension; the adoption of the modal particle θα (a contraction of ἐθέλω ἵνα > θέλω να > θε' να > θα) to denote future and conditional tenses; the introduction of auxiliary verb forms for certain tenses; the extension to the future tense of the aspectual distinction between present/imperfect and aorist; the loss of the third person imperative, and the simplification of the system of grammatical prefixes, such as augmentation and reduplication. Some of these features are shared with other languages spoken in the Balkan peninsula (see Balkan linguistic union).
Due to the influence of katharevousa, however, demotic is not commonly used in its purest form, and archaisms are still widely used, especially in writing and in more formal speech, as well as in a few everyday expressions like the dative εντάξει ('OK', literally 'in order') or the third person imperative ζήτω! ('long live!').
Writing system
Modern Greek is written in the late Ionic variant of the Greek alphabet. It is regarded as the first alphabet in the narrow sense, giving full representation to vowels on a par with consonants, unlike its predecessor, the Phoenician alphabet (also called an "abjad"). Its oldest discovered inscriptions date to the 8th or 9th Century BC. It assumed its final form in Athens in 403 BC, and displaced other regional variants due to its use for the Attic Koine dialect during the Hellenistic era.
The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with a capital and lowercase (small) form: Α α, Β β, Γ γ, Δ δ, Ε ε, Ζ ζ, Η η, Θ θ, Ι ι, Κ κ, Λ λ, Μ μ, Ν ν, Ξ ξ, Ο ο, Π π, Ρ ρ, Σ σ ς (word-final form), Τ τ, Υ υ, Φ φ, Χ χ, Ψ ψ, Ω ω.
In addition to the letters of the alphabet, Greek has a number of diacritical signs, most of which were eliminated from official use in Greece in 1982 as no longer corresponding to the modern pronunciation of the language. See Monotonic orthography for the simplified modern set, and Polytonic orthography for the traditional set.
Examples
Some common words and phrases
- Greek (man): Έλληνας, IPA /ˈelinas/
- Greek (woman): Ελληνίδα /eliˈniða/
- Greek (language): Ελληνικά /eliniˈka/
- hello: γεια /ʝa/ (informal, literally "health"). More formal: χαίρετε /ˈçerete/.
- good morning: καλημέρα /kaliˈmera/
- good evening: καλησπέρα /kaliˈspera/
- good night: καληνύχτα /kaliˈnixta/
- good-bye: χαίρετε /ˈçereˌte/ (formal), αντίο /aˈdi.o/ (semi-formal), γεια σου /ˈʝasu/ or γεια σας /ˈʝasas/ (informal)
- please: παρακαλώ /parakaˈlo/
- I would like ____ please: θα ήθελα ____ παρακαλώ /θa ˈiθela ____ parakaˈlo/
- sorry: συγγνώμη /siˈɣnomi/
- thank you: σ' ευχαριστώ /s-efxariˈsto/
- that: αυτό /afˈto/, εκείνο /eˈcino/
- this: αυτό /afˈto/, (ε)τούτο /(e)ˈtuto/
- how much?: πόσο; /ˈposo/
- how much does it cost?: πόσο κοστίζει; /ˈposo koˈstizi/
- yes: ναι /ne/
- no: όχι /ˈoçi/
- I don't understand: δεν καταλαβαίνω /ˈðe(ŋ) ɡatalaˈveno/ (sandhi - see above) or /ˈðeŋ ɡatalaˈveno/
- I don't know: δεν ξέρω /ˈðe(ŋ) ˈɡzero/ (sandhi - see above) or /ˈðeŋ ˈksero/
- where's the bathroom?: πού είναι η τουαλέτα /το μπάνιο /το λουτρό; /ˈpu ˈine i tuaˈleta /toˈbaɲo /to luˈtro/
- generic toast (literally "to health"): εις υγείαν! /is iˈʝi.an/
- juice: χυμός /çiˈmos/
- water: νερό /neˈro/
- wine: κρασί /kraˈsi/
- beer: μπύρα /ˈbira/
- milk: γάλα /ˈɣala/
- Do you speak English?: Μιλάτε Αγγλικά; /miˈlate a(ŋ)ɡliˈka/
- I love you: σ' αγαπώ /saɣaˈpo/
- Help!: Βοήθεια! /voˈiθia/
- You are a doll!: Εìσαι κουκλíτσα! /ise kouklitsa/
See also
References
- Herbert Weir Smyth, Greek Grammar, Harvard University Press, 1956 (revised edition), ISBN 0674362500. The standard grammar of classical Greek. Focuses primarily on the Attic dialect, with comparatively weak treatment of the other dialects and the Homeric Kunstsprache.
- W. Sidney Allen, Vox Graeca - a guide to the pronunciation of classical Greek. Cambridge University Press, 1968-74. ISBN 052120626X
- Geoffrey Horrocks, Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers (Longman Linguistics Library). Addison Wesley Publishing Company, 1997. ISBN 0582307090. From Mycenean to modern.
- Andrew Sihler, "A New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin", Oxford University Press, 1996. An historical grammar of ancient Greek from its Indo-European origins. Some eccentricities and no bibliography but a useful handbook to the earliest stages of Greek's development.
- Robert Browning, Medieval and Modern Greek, Cambridge University Press, 2nd edition 1983, ISBN 0521299780. An excellent and concise historical account of the development of modern Greek from the ancient language.
- Brian Newton, The Generative Interpretation of Dialect: A Study of Modern Greek Phonology, Cambridge University Press, 1972, ISBN 0521084970.
- Crosby and Schaeffer, An Introduction to Greek, Allyn and Bacon, Inc. 1928. A school grammar of ancient Greek
- David Holton et al., Greek: A Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Language, Routledge, 1997, ISBN 041510002X. A reference grammar of modern Greek.
- Dionysius of Thrace, ["Art of Grammar"], "Τέχνη γραμματική", c.100 BC
External links
General background
- [Modern Greek], Encyclopedia of the World's Major Languages, Brian Joseph
- [Ancient Greek], Encyclopedia of the World's Major Languages, Brian Joseph
- [Greek Language], Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia.
- [The Perseus Project] has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including dictionaries.
- [The Greek Language and Linguistics Gateway] Useful information on the history of the Greek language, application of modern Linguistics to the study of Greek, and tools for learning Greek.
Language learning
General
- [Ancient and Modern Greek courses], in Greece.
- [Greek dictionary, tutorial and hangman program with texteditor] This shareware program is aimed at learning New Testament Greek but fully functional for modern Greek too if one creates own glossaries.
- [Flash presentation with the sound of the letters of the Greek Alphabet]
- [Free online resources for learners (both Ancient and Modern Greek)]
Modern Greek
- [Learn Greek Online], Free modern Greek course with realaudio files.
- [FSI Greek Basic Course]
- [Learn basic Greek words and phrases] and the speeches of Xenophon Zolotas, Dr. Soukakos, Athnassopoulos and Kalaras
- [Learn how to count in Greek]
- [Learn Greek - Official site of the Greek Institute of language and speech processing]
- [Modern Greek and Albanian with Japanese translation]
- [Online pdf versions of the books used in Elementary School] Site in Greek only.
Ancient Greek including Koine (i.e. New Testament Greek)
- [A supplement to the Thrasymachus (Ancient Greek)] Part of the VRoma Project.
- [Learn Ancient Greek] at Textkit. Free downloadable Ancient Greek grammars and readers.
- [Free lessons in ancient Greek, including an introduction the special features of Greek]
- [The Greek Language and Linguistics Gateway] Provided as a free service to facilitate the study of Ancient Greek and to promote the application of methodologies from the field of Linguistics to the study of Classical and Hellenistic Greek.
- [New Testament Greek] Three graduated courses in New Testament Greek
Dictionaries
- [Greek Dictionary]: from [Webster's Dictionary]
- [Ancient Greek]
Literature
- [uox antiqua]- Ancient Greek Literature and Music.
- [Page about modern Greek Literature]
Typography
- [Athena], public domain polytonic Greek font
- [Gentium — a typeface for the nations], a freely available font including polytonic Greek support
- [Generator for Greek typographical filler text]
Lexica
- [Translatum - The Greek Translation Vortal]. An extended list of searchable and downloadable Greek dictionaries.
- [Modern Greek–English, English–Modern Greek dictionary]. (Basic dictionary)
- [Ancient Greek Dictionary], the complete Liddell-Scott dictionary, including search within English definitions.
- [Greek–English Dictionary]: from [Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition.
- [Woodhouse English-Greek dictionary], scanned images from S.C. Woodhouse's 1910 dictionary.
Spell checkers
- [link] - Greek Spell Checker.
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