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History of fantasy

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Though the fantasy genre in its modern sense is less than two centuries old, its antecedents have a long and distinguished history. Elements of the supernatural and the fantastic were an element of literature from its beginning. Even the most fantastic myths, legends and fairy tales, however, differ from modern fantasy genre in three respects:

Modern genre fantasy postulates a different reality, either a fantasy world separated from ours, or a hidden fantasy side of our own world. In addition, the rules, geography, history, etc. of this world tend to be defined, even if they are not described outright. Traditional fantastic tales take place in our world, often in the past or in far off, unknown places. It seldom describes the place or the time with any precision, often saying simply that it happened "long ago and far away." (A modern, rationalized analog to these stories can be found in the Lost World tales of the 19th and 20th centuries.)

The second difference is that the supernatural in fantasy is by design fictitious. In traditional tales the degree to which the author considered the supernatural to be real can span the spectrum from legends taken as reality to myths understood as describing in understandable terms more complicated reality, to late, wholly fictitious fairy tales.

Finally, the fantastic worlds of modern fantasy are created by an author or group of authors, often using traditional elements, but usually in a novel arrangement and with an individual interpretation. Traditional tales with fantasy elements used familiar myths and folklore, and any differences from tradition were considered variations on a theme; the traditional tales were never intended to be separate from the local supernatural folklore. Transitions between the traditional and modern modes of fantastic literature are evident in early Gothic novels, the ghost stories in vogue in the 19th century, and Romantic novels, all of which used extensively traditional fantastic motifs, but subjected them to authors' concepts.

By one standard, no work created before the fantasy genre was defined can be considered to belong to it, no matter how many fantastic elements it includes. By another, the genre includes the whole range of fantastic literature, both the modern genre and its traditional antecedents, as many elements which were treated as true (or at least not obviously untrue) by earlier authors are wholly fictitious and fantastic for modern readers. But even by the more limited definition a full examination of the history of the fantastic in literature is necessary to show the origins of the modern genre. Traditional works contain significant elements which modern fantasy authors have drawn upon extensively for inspiration in their own works.

Contents

Primordial fantasy

Main articles: Chaldean mythology, Egyptian mythology, Abrahamic mythology
The Epic of Gilgamesh, often regarded by academics as precursory to, and instrumental in the formation of, Abrahamic mythology, was written long, long after the supposed reign of King Gilgamesh, and is seen as a mythologized version of his life. The roots of many of today's fantasy subgenres were laid in this epic, including those of Bangsian fantasy.

Many have suggested that Egyptian mythology was regarded as mainly allegorical during at least part of its history. The reason for this is that the gods and goddesses of Egyptian mythology were not seen as fixed figures, but as manifestations of a single divinity. Tales of origins and other myths were therefore subject to change for the purposes of relating moral messages or discussing various aspects of the world's nature. At times gods and goddesses could even be deconstructed or combined with other deities toward such ends. Thus, some might argue that Egyptian mythology differs from modern fantasy fiction only in that its primary function was philosophical and religious in nature, rather than simple entertainment.

The Bible, which had a great and enduring impact on Western Culture and its later works of fiction, also influenced fantasy literature. The influence tends to be hidden, however, since many authors are unwilling to risk controversy which can be caused by the use of Bible in fantasy literature.

Perhaps because of Tolkien's popularity, another, much less known religion exerts great influence on fantasy. Zoroastrianism is characterised by far-reaching dualism and spiritual and material battles of the good spirit Ahura Mazda and evil Ahriman. Depiction of such wars proved irresistible to many fantasy authors.

Classical fantasy

Main articles: Greek mythology, Roman mythology, Etruscan mythology
Thetis rising from the sea to comfort Achilles (Book 18), by Thomas Banks, English, 1778, Victoria and Albert Museum
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Thetis rising from the sea to comfort Achilles (Book 18), by Thomas Banks, English, 1778, Victoria and Albert Museum

Classical mythology is replete with fantastical stories and characters, the best known (and perhaps the most relevant to modern fantasy) being the works of Homer.

At least some ancient Greek authors were known to express open disbelief in the existence of many of the creatures that featured in Greek mythology, while some of the Greek philosophers apparently doubted the literal truthfulness of ancient Greek religion. While it is probable that the majority of the ancient Greeks held a belief in the actuality of the fantastic, there existed amongst the ancient Greek literati people who viewed the factual accuracy of the mythology to be either secondary to or at least separate from the value and meaning of the myths themselves; thus, there was a sense of willing suspension of disbelief (as opposed to actual belief) in the fantastic. Such suspension of disbelief was also necessary for appreciating many known original works, particularly dramatic presentations, in classical antiquity (see fourth wall).

While the degree to which Classical fiction resembles modern fantasy is debatable, it is significant that it is from this tradition that most of the conventions in the arts of western civilization ultimately derive. Depending on one's interpretation, it could therefore be said that something resembling fantasy fiction, as we now know it, was fundamental to the development of western thinking and modern fantasy by extension. This would seem to place the fantasy genre firmly within a long and distinguished tradition of story-telling, as many fans as well as a growing number of academics have suggested.

The above mentioned works, although they included many fantastic elements, differ from modern fantasy as to their literary genre. They were written in verse, and belong either to epic poetry or drama. In that respect there is a greater similarity between modern fantasy and ancient novel. Works of Apuleius and Lucian of Samosata were created in the mature period of classical civilisation, which often resembled modernity, for example in its individualistic attitude to religion.

Thor's battle against the giants, by Marten Eskil Winge, 1872
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Thor's battle against the giants, by Marten Eskil Winge, 1872

Medieval fantasy

Main articles: Arthurian legend, Fornaldarsagas, Fairy tales, Medieval folklore, Romance (genre)

Medieval fantasy was preserved primarily in epic poetry and in the Fornaldarsagas, Norse and Icelandic sagas, both of which are based on ancient oral tradition.

The story of Beowulf is of particular interest, as the events of the story take place roughly four hundred years before the writing of the text. The characters in the story are unalloyed Pagans, whereas the author(s) is clearly Christian. A story about a past society in which a brave hero vanquishes dangerous monsters, placed within the framework of (what was then) contemporary society's beliefs and ideals, is a formula that has become an instant indicator of fantasy fiction in the years since. Though the story of Beowulf was by no means the first to do this, many of its presumably more original elements have also had huge impacts on the fantasy genre. Grendel's attacks on the Heorot, for example, established the formula of later horror stories, and this portion of the tale can be seen as precursory to dark fantasy. Grendel was also the prototypical orc, inspiring J. R. R. Tolkien's race of the same name and the majority of subsequent incarnations.

Beowulf was part of the Germanic legends, most prominently preserved in the Fornaldarsagas, literally tales of times past, or Legendary sagas. They were Norse sagas which unlike the Icelandic sagas take place before the colonization of Iceland, often based on older norse poems, such as those found in the Norse epic poem, the Elder Edda, although most of these poems have now been lost. There are however, some exceptions, such as Yngvars saga víðförla, which takes place in the 11th century.

The setting is Scandinavia, but occasionally it moves temporarily to more distant and exotic locations. There are also very often mythological elements, such as gods, dwarves, elves, dragons, giants and magic swords. The heroes often embark on dangerous quests where they fight the forces of evil, dragons, witchkings, barrow-wights, and rescue fair maidens.

Many or most of the sagas are based on distant historic events and this is evident in cases where there are corroborating sources, such as Göngu-Hrólfs saga, Ragnars saga loðbrókar, Yngvars saga víðförla and Völsunga saga. In the case of Hervarar saga the names in the Gothic setting indicate a historic basis, and the latter parts of the saga are still used as a historic source for Swedish history. They often contain very old Germanic matter, such as the Hervarar saga and the Völsunga saga which contains poetry about Sigurd that did not find its way into the Poetic Edda and which would otherwise have been lost. Other sagas deal with heroes such as Ragnar Lodbrok, Starkad, Orvar-Odd, Hagbard and Signy. The Völsunga saga, the Hervarar saga, and Hrólfs saga kraka, among others are believed to be based on historical events during the migration of the Huns and Germanic tribes at the time of the fall of the Roman Empire, based on similarities to historical documents and oral tradition from other parts of Europe, such as the Nibelungenlied and Beowulf. 

The starting point of the fornaldarsagas' influence on the creation of the Fantasy genre is the publication, in 1825, of the most famous Swedish literary work Frithjof's saga, which was based on the Friðþjófs saga ins frœkna, and it became an instant success in England and Germany. It is said to have been translated twenty-two times into English, twenty times into German, and once at least into every European language, including modern Icelandic in 1866. Their influence on authors, such as J. R. R. Tolkien, William Morris and Poul Anderson and on the subsequent modern fantasy genre is considerable, and can perhaps not be overstated. 


The above-mentioned tales (with the exception of  a late kind of sagas called lygisogur, "lying sagas") can be called fantasy only from the modern point of view. For their authors, they were more or less factual and historic; if not outright true, at least possible and probable.


Also noteworthy are the German epic, the Nibelungenlied and the Finnish epic, the Kalevala. The former, based on the same ancient legends as the Volsunga saga and many poems of the Elder Edda, inspired the Wagner's Der Ring Des Nibelungen, which can be considered fantasy in its own right. The latter, although not published until the 19th century, is compiled from oral tradition dating back to this period, and perhaps even earlier, is also considered a source of inspiration for Tolkien. Finally, the Welsh epic the Mabinogion and the Irish epic the Tain can be considered fantasy as they relate stories involving mythical creatures and a magical otherworld.





The Holy Grail, by Dante Gabriel Rossetti

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The Holy Grail, by Dante Gabriel Rossetti







There existed however a genre which embraced fantasy, and which didn't simply follow traditional myths and fables, but, in its final form, boldly created new marvels from the whole cloth. The genre in question is medieval romance. Romance at first dealt with traditional themes, above all three thematic cycles of tales, assembled in imagination at a late date as the Matter of Rome (actually centered on the life and deeds of Alexander the Great), the Matter of France (Charlemagne and Roland, his principal paladin) and the Matter of Britain (the lives and deeds of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, within which was incorporated the quest for Holy Grail).


The last work worth mentioning for its influence on fantasy genre is the Divine Comedy. It can, again, be called fantasy from the modern point of view. For its author, it was science fiction - he tried to show nearly complete image of the world according to best scientific knowledge of the time, but enlivened with characters and action.





Renaissance fantasy


During Renaissance romance continued to be popular. The trend was to fantastic fiction. Exemplary work, such as the English Le Morte d'Arthur by Sir Thomas Malory (c.1408–1471), and the Spanish Amadis de Gaula (1508), (both written in prose) spawned many imitators, and the genre was popularly well-received, producing such masterpiece of renaissance poetry as Ludovico Ariosto's Orlando furioso and Torquato Tasso's Gerusalemme Liberata and other 16th century literary works in the romance genre. 


The best known romance epic poem in English language is The Faerie Queene of  Edmund Spenser. The poem is deeply allegorical and allusive, Leaving allegory aside, however, the action is that of a typical knightly romance, involving knightly duels, and combats against giants and sorcerers. That is probably the first work in which most of the characters are not men, but elves (although the difference seems to be rather little). There are mentioned also the wars between goblins and elves, which were destined to have a great future in fantastic fiction.


The tale of Don Quixote, while not containing especially "fantastic" elements, in addition to being one of the earliest novels in modern European language, is important because it is nearly only romance which survived as a living, popular book. Paradoxically, it is at the same time a deep critique of romance and fantasy as a whole.


Its protagonist suffers from magical thinking, sometimes called the fantasy-driven mind.  As such, the story directly addresses medieval fantasy, legends, and fairytales in much the same way that Mazes and Monsters (1982) addressed fantasy role-playing games -- albeit in not quite so negative a light.





Utopian Fiction of Renaissance

Main articles: Utopian and dystopian fiction, Utopia, The City of the Sun, The New Atlantis


In year 1516 Sir Thomas More wrote a book under the title "De Optimo Reipublicae Statu deque Nova Insula Utopia" (translated On the Best State of a Republic and on the New Island of Utopia) or more simply Utopia. The name of the place, Utopia, is derived from the Greek words ou ("not") and topos ("place"), meaning the name of the island is literally "no place."  The book depicts a fictional island society and its religious, social and political customs. It can be regarded as an ideal society, although some of its institutions are written with tongue in cheek (eg chamberpots made of gold, to encourage contempt of riches).


Thomas Moore was influenced by Lucian of Samosata and Plato's Republic, The word Utopia overtook More's short work and has been used ever since to describe this kind of imaginary society with many unusual ideas being contemplated. Although he may not have founded the genre of Utopian and dystopian fiction More certainly popularised it.


''Utopia' created a whole new genre of Utopian and dystopian fiction. Works in it  include:



Eastern Fantasy


The taste for fantastic literature didn't lessen even during the Age of Enlightenment. The general antipathy to the medieval, however, caused the near disappearance of the old romance. In its place — and alongside fairy tales — appeared the first works imported from the East. Most influential of these was The Book of One Thousand and One Nights.


It was first imported into Europe in a translation into French (1704 - 1717) by Antoine Galland. This book "Les Mille et une nuits, contes arabes traduits en français" (in 12 volumes) was widely popular and was followed by translations into other European languages. Perhaps the best-known to English speakers is the translation by Sir Richard Francis Burton, published as The Arabian Nights. Unlike previous editions, his 16-volume translation was not bowdlerized. Though published in the Victorian era, it contained all the erotic nuances of the source material.



Modern fantasy

The modern fantasy genre first took root during the 18th century with the explosive popularity of fictional travelers' tales, influencing and being influenced by other early forms of speculative fiction along the way, finally unfurling in the 19th century from a literary tapestry of fantastic stories and gaining recognition as a distinct genre (mainly due to the nigh-ubiquitous recession of fantastic elements from "mainstream" fiction) in the late 1800's.



Fantasy and speculative fiction in the Enlightenment


Following somewhat in the footsteps of Don Quixote, Gulliver's Travels (1726) by Jonathan Swift used satire in the form of fantasy to parody many of the political and social conventions of its time, and can be considered the earliest work of modern-style fantasy. Swift's use of fictional countries and other lands was likely a major influence on what would later become the fantasy genre.


Enlightenment authors used widely speculative fiction for the purposes of argumentation and education. Their works tend to follow somewhat in the tradition of Utopia by Thomas Moore, and also of Apuleius and Lucian of Samosata. Their protagonist tends, similarly to Gulliver, to transverse strange and foreign countries with even more strange customs (usually invented as a criticism of some more real tradition). In some there is a strong influence of the picaresque novel. The closest modern equivalent to them are the Dying Earth tales by Jack Vance.  It is difficult to classify the Enlightenment romances as science fiction or fantasy - in reality they are neither, but belong to their own, now nearly defunct, genre of speculative fiction, sometimes called conte philosophique (a philosophical tale).


The first after Swift, and certainly most famous in his time of those authors was Voltaire. His Candide has only slight elements of fantasy. Sardonic in outlook, it follows the naïve protagonist Candide from his first exposure to the precept that "all is for the best in this, the best of all possible worlds," and on through a series of adventures that dramatically disprove that precept even as the protagonist clings to it. The only fantastic element is the strange society of Eldorado, clearly influenced by Moore's utopia, that he encounters.


Micromégas  (1752)  is more similar to the later science fiction. Micromégas, the protagonist, is a gigantic being, nearly five kilometres tall, from the star Sirius. In his travels between the stars he befriends a native of the planet Saturn who is only a kilometre high, a mere dwarf beside the protagonist. Together these two travel to Earth, and converse with various philosophers.








The gothic novel

Main articles: Gothic novel, Romanticism.


In reaction to Enlightenment's cult of Reason, Romanticism highly prized the supernatural, tradition and imagination, together with the age in which they were supposed to rule - Middle Ages. One of the first literary results of this fascinations was Gothic novel, a literary genre that began in Britain with The Castle of Otranto (1764) by Horace Walpole. 


It is the predecessor to both fantasy and modern horror fiction and, above all, has led to the common definition of "gothic" as being connected to the dark and horrific. Prominent features of gothic novels included terror, mystery, the supernatural, ghosts, haunted buildings, castles, trapdoors, doom, death, decay, madness, hereditary curses, and so on.

Ann Radcliffe, who became most popular of gothic writers, created the gothic novel in its now-standard form.  Among other elements, Radcliffe introduced the brooding figure of the gothic villain, which developed into the Byronic hero.  Unlike Walpole's, her novels, beginning with The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794), were best-sellers, and virtually everyone in English society was reading them.  Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (1818) is undoubtedly one of the most important literary triumphs of this period.


Other important authors included Matthew Gregory Lewis, author of The Monk (1796), a shocking at the time tale of sex, violence and debauchery, and William Thomas Beckford, author of  Vathek, an Arabian Tale (1786), inspired by The Book of One Thousand and One Nights.


At about the same time, parallel Romantic literary movements developed in continental Europe: the roman noir ("black novel") in France and the Schauerroman ("shudder novel") in Germany. Writers of the roman noir include François Guillaume Ducray-Duminil, Baculard d'Arnaud, and Madame de Genlis. 







John Tenniel's illustration for "A Mad Tea-Party", 1865

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John Tenniel's illustration for "A Mad Tea-Party", 1865








Early modern fantasy


In the late 1800s and early 1900s, the modern fantasy genre first truly began to take shape. The history of modern imaginary-world fantasy begins with William Morris, who essentially originated the genre's prominent characteristic of world building with The Well at the World's End and other novels. Other pioneers in this tradition include Lord Dunsany, Lewis Carroll, L. Frank Baum, and E. R. Eddison. In the twentieth century this tradition evolved into the creation of entire fictional time periods, realms, and even whole, distinct worlds.


Although fantastic lands, time periods, and realms all have their counterparts in mythology and folklore, such as Jotunheim, the "Worlds" of Mesoamerican mythology, and the Faerie of English folklore, respectively, these similarities are often regarded as largely coincidental in the case of early modern fantasy.  (Later works would come to draw inspiration for their fictional lands, time periods, and realms directly from such ancient sources, however.)


Thus, the foundations for later modern fantasy has been laid.





Fully modern fantasy


In the 19th and early 20th centuries, much fantasy was published in the same magazines as science fiction (and often written by the same authors).  After the great popularity, in the mid-20th century, of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, as well as of C. S. Lewis's Chronicles of Narnia and Ursula K. Le Guin's Earthsea series, fantasy writing saw renewed popularity, often influenced by these seminal works and, like them, borrowing from myth, epic, and medieval romance.  Hence, the modern Fantasy genre:





Post-Tolkien, Post-Howardian Fantasy


Fantasy from the 1970s onward became an expansive, multi-layered genre encompassing many forms of magical literature, from traditional "imaginary worlds" fantasy and swords and sorcery, to magical realism, feminist fairytale fantasy, contemporary fantasy, urban fantasy, fantasy of manners, mythic fiction, high fantasy "The New Weird," and more. Among the more notable writers of contemporary fantasy are Robert Jordan, George R. R. Martin, Anne Rice, Terry Pratchett, R.A. Salvatore, and Jacqueline Carey.


 





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