James D. Watson
Encyclopedia : J : JA : JAM : James D. Watson
| James D. Watson Discovery of the DNA Double Helix | |
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James Watson in the lab. | |
| Francis Crick | |
| Rosalind Franklin | |
| James Watson | |
| Maurice Wilkins | |
Early life
Born in Chicago Illinois, Watson has been fascinated by birds since he was a child due to the influence of his father, James D. Watson, a businessman. At the age of 12, he starred on the Quiz Kids, a popular radio show that challenged precocious youngsters to answer difficult questions. Thanks to the liberal policy of Robert Hutchins, he enrolled at the age of 15 at the University of Chicago. After reading Erwin Schrödinger's book What Is Life? in 1946, he changed his direction from ornithology to genetics. He earned his B.Sc. in Zoology in 1947.He was attracted to the work of Salvador Luria. Luria eventually shared a Nobel Prize for his work on the Luria-Delbruck experiment, which concerned the nature of genetic mutations. Luria was part of a distributed group of researchers who were making use of the viruses that infect bacteria in order to explore genetics. Luria and Max Delbrück were among the leaders of this new "Phage Group", an important movement of geneticists from experimental systems such as Drosophila towards microbial genetics. Early in 1948 Watson began his Ph.D. research in Luria's laboratory at Indiana University and that spring he got to meet Delbrück in Luria's apartment and again that summer during Watson's first trip to the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL). The Phage Group was the intellectual medium within which Watson became a working scientist. Importantly, the members of the Phage Group had a sense that they were on the path to discovering the physical nature of the gene. In 1949 Watson took a course with Felix Haurowitz that included the conventional view of that time: that proteins were genes and able to replicate themselves. The other major molecular component of chromosomes, DNA, was thought by many to be a "stupid tetranucleotide", serving only a structural role to support the proteins. However, even at this early time, Watson, under the influence of the Phage Group, was aware of the work of Oswald Avery which suggested that DNA was the genetic molecule. Watson's research project involved using X-rays to inactivate bacterial viruses ("phage")."The properties of x-ray inactivated bacteriophage. I. Inactivation by direct effect." by J. D. Watson in Journal of Bacteriology (1950) volume 60 page 697-718. The [full text] of this article is available for download in PDF format. He gained his Ph.D. in Zoology at Indiana University in 1950. Watson then went to Europe for postdoctoral research, first heading to the laboratory of biochemist Herman Kalckar in Copenhagen who was interested in nucleic acids and had developed an interest in phage as an experimental system.
Watson's time in Copenhagen had one favorable consequence. He was able to do some experiments with Ole Maaloe (a member of the Phage Group) that were consistent with DNA being the genetic molecule. Watson had learned about these kinds of experiments the previous summer at Cold Spring Harbor. The experiments involved radioactive phosphate as a tracer and attempted to determine what molecular components of phage particles actually infect the target bacteria during viral infection. Watson never developed a constructive interaction with Kalckar, but he did accompany Kalckar to a meeting in Italy where Watson saw Maurice Wilkins talk about his X-ray diffraction data for DNA. Watson was now certain that DNA had a definite molecular structure that could be solved.See Chapter 2 of The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology by Horace Freeland Judson published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press (1996) ISBN 0879694785.
In 1951 the chemist Linus Pauling published his model of the protein alpha helix, a result that grew out of Pauling's relentless efforts in X-ray crystallography and molecular model building. Watson now had the desire to learn to perform X-ray diffraction experiments so that he could work to determine the structure of DNA. That summer, Luria met John Kendrew and arranged for a new postdoctoral research project for Watson in England.
The structure of DNA
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| DNA pioneers |
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| William Astbury |
| Oswald Avery |
| Erwin Chargaff |
| Max Delbrück |
| Jerry Donohue |
| Raymond Gosling |
| Phoebus Levene |
| Linus Pauling |
| Sir John Randall |
| Erwin Schrödinger |
| Alec Stokes |
| Herbert Wilson |
In late 1951 Crick and Watson began a series of informal exchanges with Wilkins. Wilkins communicated some of what was going on in DNA research at King's College. In November, Watson attended a seminar by X-ray crystallography expert Rosalind Franklin at which she described some of her DNA results. The unpublished X-ray diffraction results of Franklin and Wilkins clearly indicated a helix of some sort.
During 1952, Crick and Watson had been asked not to work on making molecular models of the structure of DNABragg's decision near the end of 1951 that Watson and Crick should not work on DNA structure is described on page 128 of The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology by Horace Freeland Judson published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press (1996) ISBN 0879694785. Bragg gave Watson permission to start DNA model work again in January 1953 (see page 162).. Instead, Watson's official assignment was to perform X-ray diffraction experiments on tobacco mosaic virus. Tobacco mosaic virus was the first virus to be identified (1886) and purified (1935). Since electron microscopy revealed that virus crystals form inside infected plants, it made sense to isolate this virus for study by X-ray crystallography. Early X-ray diffraction images for tobacco mosaic virus had been collected before World War II. By 1954, Watson had deduced from his X-ray diffraction images that the tobacco mosaic virus had a helical structure."The structure of tobacco mosaic virus. I. X-ray evidence of a helical arrangement of sub-units around the longitudinal axis" by J. D. Watson in Biochim Biophys Acta. (1954) volume 13 pages 10-19. Entrez PubMed [13140277]
Despite his official assignment, the lure of solving the puzzle of DNA structure continued to tantalize Watson; with his friend Crick, he continued to think about how to determine the structure of DNA. Neither Watson nor Crick knew much chemistry, and they constructed a model of DNA in which the phosphate backbones were on the inside of the structure. When they later consulted with Franklin, she told them that instead, the phosphates almost certainly were on the outside not the inside.
In April 1952, Watson's PhD research advisor, Luria, was to speak at a meeting in England. However, Luria was not allowed to travel due to cold war fears over his Marxist leanings. Watson used Luria's speaking slot to talk about his own work with radioactive DNA and the results of others in the Phage Group that indicated the genetic material of phages was DNA. It has been recorded that during this meeting Watson was discussing with others prior discoveries by other researchers such as the calculated width of the B-form molecule as determined by X-ray diffraction studies. By 1952 estimates from X-ray data and electron microscopy agreed that the diameter of DNA was about 2 nanometers.
Watson and Crick benefitted from two travel-related strokes of luck in 1952. First, Erwin Chargaff visited England in 1952 and inspired Watson's and Crick to learn more about nucleotide biochemistry. There were four nucleobases: guanine (G), cytosine (C), adenine (A) and thymine (T). The the so-called Chargaff ratios experimental results had already shown that of the the bases were already paired in DNA in that the amount of G is equal to C and the amount of A is equal to T. Jerry Donohue explained to Watson and Crick the correct structures of the four bases.
The second travel-related event was that Linus Pauling's plans to visit England were disrupted. His planned visit was cancelled for political reasons and he never gained access to the King's College X-ray diffraction data for DNA until it was published in 1953, along with the Watson-Crick model.
It was also in 1952 that the final details of the chemical structure of the DNA backbone was determined by biochemists like Alexander Todd. In 1953, Crick and Watson were given permission by their lab director and Wilkins to try to make a structural model of DNA.
The breakthrough
Watson's key contribution was in discovering the nucleotide base pairs that are the key to the structure and function of DNA.This key discovery was made in the Pauling "tradition", by playing with molecular models.Since he would have to wait for the Cadvendish machine shop to make tin models, Watson, on February 21, 1953 made a molecule model of each using a straight edge, an exacto knife, white cardboard and paste. Chargaff had already suggested the pairing, which, in Watson's mind, were the "big" two-ring A and G being paired with the "small" one-ring T and C. After building his cardboard molecule models, Watson was looking for the possiblity of hydrogen bonds. Note also that these molecules are all flat in their ring structures. Afer moving the A and T molecules around on the table he sat at, he brought together the distal (relative to its five-member ring) nitrogen of the A and the correct nitrogen-based hydrogen of T. Fortunately, the A and T were lying on the table both "face up" in that they were in the orientation as they occur in DNA and Watson then noticed the possibility of the second hydrogen bond. He quickly saw that the other pair, C's nitrogen and G's nitrogen-based hydrogen had a similar relationship and that those two molecules formed three such bonds. He then saw that the two big/small pairs could be superimposed one each other with similar overall structure. In particular, the hexagnoal rings were equidistant and the relative orientations of the five-member rings of the "big" molecules, A and G were the same. He sensed that too many pieces fell in place for this to be anything but the answer. He was correct.
After the breakthrough
Using the unpublished results of Franklin and Wilkins, together Watson and Crick deduced the double helix structure of DNA which they published in the journal Nature on April 25, 1953.[Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids] by James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick. Nature 171, 737–738 (1953).
For their efforts, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962 for their discovery of DNA structure.[The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962]. Nobel Prize citation for Crick, Watson and Wilkins. Some in the molecular biology community believe that since Franklin died early, and Wilkins was much less of a publicity-seeker, that Watson and Crick have in the popular mind overshadowed Wilkins and Franklin to an undeserved degree.
In 1968 Watson wrote The Double Helix, one of the Modern Library's 100 best non-fiction books. The account is the sometimes painful story of not only the discovery of the structure of DNA, but the personalities, conflicts and controversy surrounding their work. It was originally to be published by Harvard University Press, but after objections from both Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins, among others, Watson's home university dropped the book and it was instead published by a private publisher, and incident which caused some scandal. Watson's original title was to have been "Honest Jim", in part to raise the ethical questions of sneaking around behind Franklin's back to gain access to her X-ray diffraction data before they were published. Watson seems to have never been particularly bothered by the way things turned out. If all that mattered was beating Pauling to the structure of DNA, then Franklin's cautious approach to analysis of the X-ray data was simply an obstacle that Watson needed to run around. Wilkins and others were there at the right time to help Watson and Crick do so. Also in 1968, Watson became the director of the CSHL and made the CSHL his permanent residence in 1974.
The Double Helix changed the way the public viewed scientists and the way they work. In the same way, Watson's first textbook, The Molecular Biology of the Gene set a new standard for textbooks, particularly through the use of concept heads - brief declarative subheadings. Its style has been emulated by almost all succeeding textbooks. His next great success was Molecular Biology of the Cell although here his role was more of coordinator of an outstanding group of scientist-writers. His third textbook was Recombinant DNA which used the ways in which genetic engineering has brought us so much new information about how organisms function. All the textbooks are still in print.
Controversy about using King's College London's results
An enduring controversy has been generated by Watson and Crick's use of DNA X-ray diffraction data collected by Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling. The controversy arose from the fact that some of the data were shown to them, without her knowledge, by her estranged colleague, Maurice Wilkins, and by Max PerutzChapter 3 of The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology by Horace Freeland Judson published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press (1996) ISBN 0879694785.. Her experimental results provided estimates of the water content of DNA crystals and these results were consistent with the two sugar-phosphate backbones being on the outside of the molecule. Franklin personally told Crick and Watson that the backbones had to be on the outside. Her identification of the space group for DNA crystals revealed to Crick that the two DNA strands were antiparallel. The X-ray diffraction images collected by Gosling and Franklin provided the best evidence for the helical nature of DNA. Franklin's superb experimental work thus proved crucial in Watson and Crick's discovery.In 1951, Franklin had presented some of her experimental findings for DNA at a public seminar to which Watson had been invited by Wilkins. Crick was given permission by his boss, Perutz, to read an internal MRC report containing those experimental findings. Wilkins let Watson view one of the better "B form" X-ray diffraction images collected by Gosling and Franklin. Franklin had made an agreement with Wilkins that he could work on the B form while she would concentrate her efforts on the A form.
The strangely informal nature of the interactions between Watson and Crick at Cambridge and Wilkins and Franklin in London arose from several sources. Watson was an active correspondent within Max Delbrück's "Phage Group". Members of this distributed group were devoted to exploration of the physical nature of genes and their group promoted a free exchange of unpublished information. Wilkins had originally worked with Gosling on DNA and felt that he should have been able to collaborate with Franklin when she started working with Gosling on DNAWilkins, Maurice, The Third Man of the Double Helix. Franklin was cold to the idea of collaboration with Wilkins. Another important element of the interactions between the Cambridge and London researchers was that Watson and Crick were in favor of trying an approach to solving the structure of DNA that neither Franklin nor Wilkins felt comfortable with.
The position taken by Watson and Crick was that the data from King's College should be used as a basis for molecular model construction, a view that conflicted with Franklin's view that the structure should be revealed by careful calculations. In the year leading up to the discovery of the double helix, Wilkins and Franklin had both refused to participate in the kind of molecular model building that was advocated by Watson and Crick. It was the Watson and Crick approach that eventually led to their discovery of the structure.
Prior to publication of the double helix structure, Watson and Crick had little interaction with Franklin. Crick and Watson felt that they had benefitted from collaborating with Wilkins. They offered him a co-authorship on the article that first described the double helix structure of DNA. Wilkins turned down the offer and was in part responsible for the terse character of the acknowledgement of experimental work done at King's College. Rather than make any of the DNA researchers at King's College co-authors on the Watson and Crick double helix article, the solution that was arrived at was to publish two additional papers from King's College along with the helix paper. Brenda Maddox suggested that because of the importance of her work to Watson and Crick's model building, Franklin should have had her name on the original Watson and Crick manuscriptRosalind Franklin: The Dark Lady of DNA by Brenda Maddox. (2002) ISBN 0060184078..
After the discovery of the DNA double helix, Franklin became friends with both Watson and Crick, and spent her last period of remission from ovarian cancer in Crick's house (Franklin died in 1958)What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery by Francis Crick (Basic Books reprint edition, 1990 ISBN 0465091385) and The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology by Horace Freeland Judson provide descriptions of Watson's and Crick's interactions with Wilkins and Franklin..
Genome Project
In 1988, Watson's achievement and success led to his appointment as the Head of the Human Genome Project at the National Institutes of Health, a position he held until 1992. Watson left the Genome Project after conflicts with the new NIH Director, Bernardine Healy. Watson was opposed to Healy's attempts to commercialize genes by granting patents on genes and ownership rights based on the identification of gene sequences. Watson left due to the legal technicality of it not being acceptable for the head of the Genome Project to at the same time have a job like the one Watson still held at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. In 1994, Watson gave up his position of director and became president of the CSHL for ten years. Currently, Watson gives public speeches and serves as chancellor of the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in Cold Spring Harbor, New York.Other controversies
Watson is an outspoken atheist, known for his frank opinions on politics, religion, and the role of science in society. He has been considered to hold a number of controversial views.
He is for instance a strong proponent of genetically modified crops, holding that the benefits far outweigh any plausible environmental dangers, and that many of the arguments against GM crops are unscientific or irrational. His views on these matters are covered in some depth in his book DNA: The Secret of Life (2003), particularly in chapter 6.
He has also repeatedly supported genetic screening and genetic engineering in public lectures and interviews, arguing for instance that the "really stupid" bottom 10% of people should be aborted before birth; that all girls should be genetically engineered to be pretty [link] and "that if the gene (for homosexuality) were discovered and a woman decided not to give birth to a child that may have a tendency to become homosexual, she should be able to abort the fetus." [link]
According to James Watson at the 2003 conference: DNA: "50 years of the Double Helix" held in Cambridge (England) in 2003 : (quote) "Now perhaps it's a pretty well kept secret that one of the most uninspiring acts of Cambridge University over this past century was to turn down Francis Crick when he applied to be the Professor of Genetics, in 1958. Now there may have been a series of arguments, which lead them to reject Francis. But it really was stupid. It was really saying, don't push us to the frontier. That's what it was saying." (conference transcript)
Watson also had quite a few disagrements with Craig Venter regarding his use of EST fragments while Venter worked at NIH. Venter went on to found Celera genomics and continued his feud with Watson through the privately funded venture. Watson was even quoted as calling Venter Hitler (The Genome War, J. Shreeve)
References
Further reading
- Chadarevian, S. (2002) Designs For Life: Molecular Biology After World War II. Cambridge University Press ISBN 0521570786
- Chargaff, E. (1978) Heraclitean Fire. New York: Rockefeller Press.
- Chomet, S., ed., (1994) D.N.A.: Genesis of a Discovery London: Newman-Hemisphere Press.
- Elkin, L. O. (2003) ["Rosalind Franklin and the Double Helix"] Physics Today. 56 (February): 42-49.
- Judson, H. F. (1977) The Eighth Day of Creation. Makers of the Revolution in Biology. Jonathan Cape. ISBN 13579108642
- Hunter, G. (2004) Light Is A Messenger: the life and science of William Lawrence Bragg. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019852921X
- Olby, R. (1974) The Path to The Double Helix: Discovery of DNA. London: MacMillan. ISBN 046681173; Definitive DNA textbook, with foreword by Francis Crick, revised in 1994 with a 9 page postscript.
- Olby, R. (2003) ["Quiet debut for the double helix"] Nature 421 (January 23): 402-405.
- Ridley, M. (2006) Francis Crick: Discoverer of the Genetic Code (Eminent Lives) New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 006082333X.
- Watson, J. D. (1968) The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA. New York: Atheneum.
- Watson, J. D., T. A. Baker, S. P. Bell, A. Gann, M. Levine, and R. Losick, eds., (2003) Molecular Biology of the Gene. (5th edition) New York: Benjamin Cummings ISBN 080534635X
- Watson, J. D. (2002) Genes, Girls, and Gamow: After the Double Helix. New York: Random House. ISBN 0375412832
- Watson, J. D. and A. Berry (2003) DNA: The Secret of Life New York: Random House. ISBN 0375415467
- Wilkins, M. (2003) The Third Man of the Double Helix: The Autobiography of Maurice Wilkins. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198606656.
Multimedia
- [BBC Four Interviews] - Watson and Crick speaking on the BBC in 1962, 1972, and 1974.
- [Charlie Rose "DNA: The Secret of Life"] - video interview with James D. Watson.
- [Charlie Rose "Charles Darwin"] - Charlie Rose interviews Watson and Edward O. Wilson on biology, and the importance of Darwin.
- [NPR Science Friday: "A Conversation with Genetics Pioneer James Watson"] - Ira Flatow interviews Watson on the history of DNA and his recent book A Passion for DNA: Genes, Genomes, and Society.
- [NPR Science Friday "DNA: The Secret of Life"] - Ira Flatow interviews Watson on his new book.
External links
- [Double Helix: 50 Years of DNA] - Nature celebrates the 50th anniversary.
- [Presentation speech at the Nobel Prize ceremony in 1962]
- [Nobel Foundation biography]
- *[DNA - The Double Helix]
- [Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory biography]
- [MSN Encarta biography]
- [The King's College London team]
- [Discover "Reversing Bad Truths"] - David Duncan interviews Watson.
- [Remembering Francis Crick] - with first press stories on DNA.
- [The New York Times story] - facsimile reproduction of the original text in June 1953.
- [The New York Times 50th anniversary series of articles]
- ['Death' of DNA. Helix (Crystalline) joke funeral card]
- [Linus Pauling and the Race for DNA] - quotes from Robert Olby on who may have discovered the structure of DNA.
- [Video of Watson describing the details of the breakthrough] - Note: He points out the A and T molecules in a cofusing manner.
- [Base pairing in DNA Double Helix] - shows the hydrogen bonds
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1951: Theiler |
1952: Waksman |
1953: Krebs, Lipmann |
1954: Enders, Weller, Robbins |
1955: Theorell |
1956: Cournand, Forssmann, Richards |
1957: Bovet |
1958: Beadle, Tatum, Lederberg |
1959: Ochoa, Kornberg |
1960: Burnet, Medawar |
1961: Békésy |
1962: Crick, Watson, Wilkins |
1963: Eccles, Hodgkin, Huxley |
1964: Bloch, Lynen |
1965: Jacob, Lwoff, Monod |
1966: Rous, Huggins |
1967: Granit, Hartline, Wald |
1968: Holley, Khorana, Nirenberg |
1969: Delbrück, Hershey, Luria |
1970: Katz, Euler, Axelrod |
1971: Sutherland |
1972: Edelman, Porter |
1973: Frisch, Lorenz, Tinbergen |
1974: Claude, Duve, Palade |
1975: Baltimore, Dulbecco, Temin
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