Latin declension

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Latin is an inflected language, and as such its nouns, pronouns, and adjectives must be declined in order to serve a grammatical function. A set of declined forms of the same word pattern is called a declension. There are five declensions, which are numbered and grouped by ending and grammatical gender.

Grammatical cases

A complete declenation consists of seven grammatical cases:

• The nominative case, which is used to express the subject of a statement. It is also used with copulative verbs.
• The genitive case, which expresses possession, measurement, or source. In English, the gentive case is represented analytically by the preposition ; inflectively, by the suffix "-es" (or -se, when the stem ends in a vowel - e.g., who > whose, not "whoes"). This suffix, which is the same as the Latin suffix "-is," is typically abbreviated "-'s" (e.g., Paul > Paul's, not "Paules").
• The dative case, which expresses the recipient of an action, the indirect object of a verb. In English, the prepositions , and most commonly denote this case analytically.
• The accusative case, which expresses the direct object of a verb. In English, except for a small number of words which display a distinct accusative case (e.g., who > whom), the accusative and nominative cases are identical.
• The vocative case, which is used to address someone or something in direct speech. This case is indicated in English by punctuation, e.g. "Mary is going to the store" (Mary is nominative) compared to "Mary, are you going to the store?" (Mary is vocative) or "Mary!"
• The ablative case, which expresses separation, indirection, or the means by which an action is performed. In English, the prepositions , , and are most commonly used to indicate this case.
• The locative case, which is used to express the place in or on which, or the time at which, an action is performed. The locative case is extremely marginal in Latin, applying only to the names of cities and small islands and to a few other isolated words, and is identical to the genitive case (in the first and second declension singular), the dative case (in the first and second declension plural and in the third declension) or the ablative case (fourth and fifth declension).

The sequence of the grammatical cases above is standard in North America, and in fact goes back to Byzantine grammarians originally writing about Greek. But the presentation NOM-VOC-ACC-GEN-DAT-ABL has been the usual order in Britain and many European and Commonwealth countries since the publication of Hall Kennedy's Latin Primer (1866). This order is argued to more closely reflect the tendencies of different cases to share similar endings.

In Polish language Latin learner texts, however, the most common order is NOM-GEN-DAT-ACC-ABL-VOC, which is a similar order to the one adopted for Modern Polish. Likewise, in German textbooks, the order NOM-GEN-DAT-ACC-VOC-ABL is used, to mirror the order of the four grammatical cases of Modern German (NOM-GEN-DAT-ACC). The same order is used in Italian textbooks (Italian has no grammatical cases).

However, Brazilian grammarian Napoleão Mendes uses the unusual sequence NOM-VOC-GEN-DAT-ABL-ACC.

Syncretic trends

Syncretism, where one form in a paradigm shares the ending of another form in the paradigm, is common in Latin. The following are the most notable patterns of syncretism:

• The accusative is always identical to the nominative in the neuter (both singular and plural, across all declensions). In addition, the accusative is the same as the nominative in the plural of the third, fourth and fifth declensions (but note the alternative –īs accusative plural ending for i-stem nominals, different from nominative –ēs).
• The vocative is always identical to the nominative in the plural, and also in the singular except in the second declension and a few Greek nouns. For example, the vocative of Aeneās is Aenea, although Aeneās is first declension.
• The dative is always the same as the ablative in the plural, and in the singular in the second declension, the third-declension full i-stems i.e. neuter i-stems, adjectives), and fourth-declension neuters.
• The genitive singular is the same as the nominative plural in first-, second-declension, and fourth declension nouns that are not neuter.
• The dative singular is the same as the genitive singular in first- and fifth-declension nouns.
• Plural neuter nominative/accusative always ends in -a (with a few exceptions: demonstrative hic and related istic and illic, relative/interrogative quī and friends; in all of them, the neuter plural takes the same form as feminine singular nominative).
• The accusative singular ends in short vowel plus -m, except for a few neuters with unusual base forms.
• The accusative plural (assuming not neuter) ends in a long vowel plus -s; so does the nominative plural of the third, fourth and fifth declensions (again assuming not neuter).

First declension

Nouns of this declension usually end in –a and are typically feminine, for example 'road' (via, viae fem.) and 'water' (aqua, aquae fem.), with a few masculine exceptions, including 'farmer' (agricola, agricolae masc.) and 'sailor' (nauta, nautae masc.). The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is a. The nominative singular form consists of the stem and the affix -a, and the genitive singular form is the stem plus -ae.

Case	puella, –ae girl f.
	Singular	Ending	Plural	Ending
Nominative	puella	–a	puellae	–ae
Genitive	puellae	–ae	puellārum	–ārum
Dative	puellae	–ae	puellīs	–īs
Accusative	puellam	–am	puellās	–ās
Ablative	puellā	–ā	puellīs	–īs
Vocative	puella	–a	puellae	–ae

First declension Greek nouns

The first declension also holds three types of Greek nouns. They are declined irregularly in the singular.

Case	Aenēās, –ae Aeneas m.		Circē, –ēs Circe f.		cometēs, –ae comet f.
	Singular	Ending	Singular	Ending	Singular	Ending
Nominative	Aenēās	–ās	Circē	–ē	cometēs	–ēs
Genitive	Aenēae	–ae	Circēs	–ēs	cometae	–ae
Dative	Aenēae	–ae	Circae	–ae	cometae	–ae
Accusative	Aenēam1	–am1	Circēn	–ēn	cometēn	–ēn
Ablative	Aenēā	–ā	Circē	–ē	cometē2	–ē2
Vocative	Aenēā	–ā	Circē	–ē	cometēs	–a

• 1: may end in –ān
• 2: may end in –ā

Second declension

The second declension is a large group of nouns consisting of mostly masculine nouns like 'horse' (equus, equi masc.) and 'boy' (puer, pueri masc.) and neuter nouns like 'fort' (castellum, castelli neut.), with a few feminine exceptions including names of gemstones, trees, and some cities. In the nominative singular, most masculine nouns consist of the stem and the affix -us, although some end in -er, which is not necessarily attached to the complete stem. Neuter nouns generally have a nominative singular consisiting of the stem and the ending -um. However, every second-declension noun has the affix -i attached as a suffix to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is o.

Case	campus, –ī field m.				saxum, –ī rock n.
	Singular	Ending	Plural	Ending	Singular	Ending	Plural	Ending
Nominative	campus	–us	campī	–ī	saxum	–um	saxa	–a
Genitive	campī	–ī	campōrum	–ōrum	saxī	–ī	saxōrum	–ōrum
Dative	campō	–ō	campīs	–īs	saxō	–ō	saxīs	–īs
Accusative	campum	–um	campōs	–ōs	saxum	–um	saxa	–a
Dative	campō	–ō	campīs	–īs	saxō	–ō	saxīs	–īs
Vocative	campe	–e	campī	–ī	saxum	–um	saxa	–a

Second declension R nouns

Some masculine nouns of the second declension end in an –er or an –ir in the nominative singular. The genitive singular must be learned to see if the E is dropped. For example, socer, –erī keeps its E. Though, in magister, –trī drops its E. (The I in nouns that have –ir in the nominative singular is never dropped.) Below is an example of magister.

Case	magister, –trī teacher, master m.
	Singular	Ending	Plural	Ending
Nominative	magister	–r	magistrī	–ī
Genitive	magistrī	–ī	magistrōrum	–ōrum
Dative	magistrō	–ō	magistrīs	–īs
Accusative	magistrum	–um	magistrōs	–ōs
Ablative	magistrō	–ō	magistrīs	–īs
Vocative	magister	–r	magistrī	–ī

Second declension Greek nouns

There are two types of masculine Greek nouns, and there is one type of neuter Greek noun. These nouns are only irregular in the singular, as are their first declension counterparts.

Case	barbitos, –ī lyre m.		Hypnōs, –ō Hypnos m.		doron, –ī gift n.
	Singular	Ending	Singular	Ending	Singular	Ending
Nominative	barbitos	–os	Hypnōs	–ōs	doron	–on
Genitive	barbitī	–ī	Hypnō1	–ō1	dorī	–ī
Dative	barbitō	–ō	Hypnō	–ō	dorō	–ō
Accusative	barbiton	–on	Hypnōn	–ōn	doron	–on
Ablative	barbite	–e	Hypnō	–ō	dorō	–ō
Vocative	barbite	–e	Hypnōs	–ōs	doron	–on

• 1: may end in –ī

Third declension

The third declension is the largest group of nouns. Nouns that lie here may end in –a,–e, –ī, –ō, –y, –c, –l, –n, –r, –s, –t, or –x It consists of masculine, neuter, and feminine nouns of variable nominative cases and roots. The third declension includes 'river' (flumen, fluminis neut.), 'flower' (flos, floris masc.), and 'peace' (pax, pacis fem.). Each noun has the affix -is as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. Masculine, feminine and neuter nouns each have their own special nominative singular endings. For instance, only masculine nouns end in an –or (amor). Only feminine nouns end in an –īx (phoenīx), and only neuter nouns end in an –us (onus). As in all declensions, some nouns defy these rules.

Case	amor, –ōris love m.				phoenīx, –īcis phoenix f.				onus, –eris work n.
	Singular	Ending	Plural	Ending	Singular	Ending	Plural	Ending	Singular	Ending	Plural	Ending
Nominative	amor	–or	amōrēs	–ēs	phoenīx	–īx	phoenīcēs	–ēs	onus	–us	onera	–a
Genitive	amōris	–is	amōrum	–um	phoenīcis	–is	phoenīcum	–um	oneris	–is	onerum	–um
Dative	amōrī	–ī	amōribus	–ibus	phoenīcī	–ī	phoenīcibus	–ibus	onerī	–ī	oneribus	–ibus
Accusative	amōrem	–em	amōrēs	–ēs	phoenīcem	–īx	phoenīcēs	–ēs	onus1	–us1	onera	–a
Ablative	amōre	–e	amōribus	–ibus	phoenīce	–e	phoenīcibus	–ibus	onere	–e	oneribus	–ibus
Vocative	amor	–or	amōrēs	–ēs	phoenīx	–īx	phoenīcēs	–ēs	onus	–us	onera	–a

• 1: Neuter nouns' nominatives and accusatives always repeat. So –us isn't always the appropriate termination, though it seems as if it were in the inflection above.

Third declension i-stem nouns

The third declension also has a set of nouns which are declined different. They are called i-stems. Once can tell whether a word is an i-stem or not based on the following criteria.

• Masculine & Feminine
• * Parasyllibic Rule: Some masculine and feminine third declension i-stem nouns have the same number of syllables in the genitive as they do in the nominative. For example: canālis, –is.
• * Double-Constanant Rule: The rest of the masculine and feminine third declension i-stem nouns have a two constants before the –is in the genitive singular. For example: pars, partis.
• Neuter
• *Neuter third declension i-stems have no rule. Though, all of them end in either an –al, –ar or –e.

Case	canālis, –is canal m.				pars, –artis part f.				hastīle, –is spear n.
	Singular	Ending	Plural	Ending	Singular	Ending	Plural	Ending	Singular	Ending	Plural	Ending
Nominative	canālis	–is	canālēs	–ēs	pars	–rs	partēs	–ēs	hastīle	–e	hastīlia	–ia
Genitive	canālis	–is	canālium	–ium	partis	–is	partium	–ium	hastīlis	–is	hastīlum	–ium
Dative	canālī	–ī	canālibus	–ibus	partī	–ī	partibus	–ibus	hastīlī	–ī	hastīlibus	–ibus
Accusative	canālem1	–em1	canālēs2	–ēs2	partem1	–īx1	partēs2	–ēs2	hastīle	–e	hastīlia	–ia
Ablative	canāle3	–e3	canālibus	–ibus	parte3	–e3	partibus	–ibus	hastīlī	–ī	hastīlibus	–ibus
Vocative	canālis	–is	canālēs	–ēs	pars	–rs	partēs	–ēs	hastīle	–e	hastīlia	–ia

• 1: may end in –im
• 2: may end in –īs
• 3: may end in –ī

Fourth declension

The fourth declension is a group of nouns consisting of mostly masculine words like 'wave' (fluctus, fluctūs masc.) and 'port' (portus, portūs masc.) with a few feminine exceptions, including 'hand' (manus, manūs fem.). The fourth declension also includes several neuter nouns like 'knee' (genu, genūs neut.). Each noun has the affix -ūs as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is u.

Case	portus, –ūs port m.				gelū, –ūs frost, chill n.
	Singular	Ending	Plural	Ending	Singular	Ending	Plural	Ending
Nominative	portus	–us	portūs	–ūs	gelū	–ū	gelua	–ua
Genitive	portūs	–ūs	portuum	–uum	gelūs	–ūs	geluum	–uum
Dative	portuī	–uī	portibus	–ibus	gelū	–ū	gelibus	–ibus
Accusative	portum	–um	portūs	–ūs	gelū	–ū	gelua	–ua
Ablative	portū	–ū	portibus	–ibus	gelū	–ū	gelibus	–ibus
Vocative	portus	–us	portūs	–ūs	gelū	–ū	gelua	–ua

Fifth declension

The fifth declension is a small group of nouns consisting of mostly feminine words like 'affair, matter, thing' (res, rei fem.) and 'day' (dies, diei usually feminine, except on notable days when it is masculine). Each noun has the affix -ei as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form.

Case	effigiēs, –ēī effigy, ideal f.				spēs, –eī hope f.
	Singular	Ending	Plural	Ending	Singular	Ending	Plural	Ending
Nominative	effigiēs	–ēs	effigiēs	–ēs	spēs	–ēs	spēs	–ēs
Genitive	effigiēī	–ēī	effigiērum	–ērum	speī	–eī	spērum	–ērum
Dative	effigiēī	–ēī	effigiēbus	–ēbus	speī	–eī	spēbus	–ēbus
Accusative	effigiem	–em	effigiēs	–ēs	spem	–em	spēs	–ēs
Ablative	effigiē	–ē	effigiēbus	–ēs	spē	–ē	spēbus	–ēbus
Vocative	effigiēs	–ēs	effigiēs	–ēs	spēs	–ēs	spēs	–ēs

Note that nouns ending in iēs have long ēī in the dative and genitive, while nouns ending in a consonant + ēs have short eī in these cases.

This declension class is the last to develop in Latin; the only nouns that have the full declension are diēs and fidēs.

From rēs we get rēs pūblica, or republic: thing of the people.

Adjective declensions

Adjectives are divided into two declension classes. The first (called the "first and second declension") combines the a and o declensions of nouns, with the a endings added when the adjective is feminine, and the o forms for masculines. Neuter adjectives of this class follow the pattern for o class neuter nouns.

The other class for adjectives (called the "third declension") is similar to the third class for nouns, with the important difference that nearly all these adjectives form the ablative singular in -ī, not in -e. The nominative singular of these adjectives is also often marked for gender in various ways.

A small class of adjectives follows the "pronominal declension", described below.

Pronoun declensions

Relative and demonstrative pronouns are generally declined like first and second declension adjectives, with the following differences:

• the nominatives are often irregular
• the dative singular ends in -ī: rather than -ae or -ō.
• the genitive singular ends in -īus rather than -ae or -ī.

These differences identify the "pronominal" declension, and a few adjectives also follow this pattern.

Personal Pronouns

Case	ego, nōs I, we		tū, vōs you (ye, thou)
	Singular	Plural'''	Singular	Plural
Nominative	ego	nōs	tū	vōs
Genitive	meī	nostrum1	tuī	vestrum1
Dative	mihi	nōbīs	tibi	vōbīs
Accusative	mē	nōs	tē	vōs
Ablative	mē	nōbīs	tē	vōbīs
Vocative	——	——	tū	vōs

• 1: May end in –trī.

Usually, to show the ablative of accompaniment, cum would be added to the ablative form. Though, with personal pronouns and the interrogative (not with 3rd person), cum is added on to the end of the ablative form. For example: mēcum, nōbīscum, tēcum, vōbīscum and quōcum (sometimes quīcum).

Interrogative Pronouns

The interrogative pronouns are used strictly for asking questions. It is best not to confused them with the relative pronoun and the interrogative adjective (which is declined like the relative pronoun). Interrogative pronouns rarely occur in the plural; though, they may. The plural interrogative pronouns are the same as the plural relative pronouns.

Personal Pronouns

See also

• Latin conjugation

 

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