Mongol invasions of Japan
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The of 1274 and 1281 were major military operations undertaken by Kublai Khan to conquer the Japanese islands after the Koreans told the Mongols how easy it would be to conquer Japan due to Japan's uncultivated society. Despite their ultimate failure, the invasion attempts are of macrohistorical importance, setting a limit on Mongol expansion, and ranking as nation-defining events in Japanese history. They are referred to in many works of fiction, and are the earliest events for which the word kamikaze, or "divine wind", is widely used. In addition, with the arguable exception of the Occupation at the end of World War II, these failed invasion attempts are the closest Japan has ever come to being invaded within the last 1500 years.
The Invasions
The Mongolian Kublai Khan became Emperor of China in 1260 and established his capital at Beijing in 1264. In 1231 the Mongols invade Korea, after nearly three decades of war, Korea signed a treaty in favor of the Yuan Dynasty. Two years later, the Mongolians dispatched emissaries to Japan, commanding the Japanese to submit to Mongol rule, or face invasion. A second set of emissaries were sent in 1268, returning empty-handed, like their predecessors. Both sets of emissaries met with the Chinzei Bugyō, or Defense Commissioner for the West, who passed on the message to the Shogun in Kamakura, and the Emperor in Kyoto. A number of messages were sent after that, some through Korean emissaries, and some by Mongol ambassadors. The Kamakura shogunate (Bakufu) ordered all those who held fiefs in Kyushu (the area closest to Korea, and thus most likely to be attacked) to return to their lands, and forces in Kyushu moved west, further securing the most likely landing points. In addition, great prayer services were organized, and much government business was put off to deal with this crisis.
The Khan was willing to go to war as early as 1268, but found that the Mongol empire did not have the resources to provide him with a sufficient army or navy at that time. He sent a force to Korea in 1273, to act as the advance guard, but they were unable to support themselves off the Korean countryside, and were forced to return to China for supplies. Finally, in 1274, the Mongol fleet set out, with roughly 15,000 Mongol & Chinese soldiers and 8,000 Korean warriors, in 300 large vessels and 400-500 smaller craft. They captured the islands of Tsushima and Iki easily, and landed on November 19th in Hakata Bay, a short distance from Dazaifu, the ancient administrative capital of Kyushu. The following day brought the Battle of Bun'ei (文永の役), also known as the "Battle of Hakata Bay"; the Mongols had superior weapons and tactics and also seriously outnumbered the small samurai garrison, overpowering it and forcing the Japanese to take shelter in the fortress of Dazaifu. However, heavy casualties, lack of supplies, rebellion brewing among the Korean and Chinese auxilaries that made the majority of the army, and a storm on its fleet forced the invasion off.
Starting in 1275, the Bakufu made increased efforts to defend against the second invasion which they thought was sure to come. In addition to better organizing the samurai of Kyushu, they ordered the construction of forts and other defensive structures at many potential landing points, including Hakata. Meanwhile, the king of Korea tried many times to negotiate with the Mongols, arguing against further attempts to invade Japan.
In the spring of 1281, the Mongols' Chinese fleet was delayed by difficulties in provisioning and manning the large number of ships they had. Their Korean fleet set sail, suffered heavy losses at Tsushima, and turned back. In the summer, the combined Korean/Chinese fleet took Iki-shima, and moved on to Kyushu, landing at a number of separate positions. In a number of individual skirmishes, known collectively as the Battle of Kouan (弘安の役), or the Second Battle of Hakata Bay, the Mongol forces were driven back to their ships. The Japanese army was again heavily outnumbered, but had fortified the coastal line and was easily able to repulse the auxilaries that were launched against it. The now-famous kamikaze, a massive typhoon, assaulted the shores of Kyushu for two days straight, and destroyed much of the Mongol fleet. However, many scholars now believe that the destruction of the Mongol fleet was greatly facilitated by the hastily acquired flat-bottomed Chinese riverboats that comprised much of the invasion force. Such ships were not designed to deal with the high seas, let alone a massive typhoon. Had Kublai used ocean going ships, which have a curved keel to prevent capsizing, his navy may have survived the storm and made it to invade Japan as originally intended.
Resources
- Sansom, George, A History of Japan to 1334, Stanford University Press, 1958.
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