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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

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The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality test designed to assist a person in identifying some significant personality preferences. Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers developed the test during World War II, and its criteria follow from Carl Jung's theories in his work Psychological Types.Jung, Carl Gustav (August 1, 1971). Psychological Types (Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Volume 6). Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691097704. The registered trademark rights in the phrase and its abbreviation have been assigned from the publisher of the test, Consulting Psychologists Press Inc., to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Trust.Consulting Psychologists Press (2004). [Trademark Guidelines]. Retrieved December 20, 2004. The test is frequently used in the areas of pedagogy, group dynamics, employee training, leadership training, marriage counseling, and personal development, although scientific skeptics and academic psychologists have subjected it to considerable criticism in research literature, noting it "lacks convincing validity data" Hunsley J, Lee CM, Wood JM (2004). Controversial and questionable assessment techniques. Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology, Lilienfeld SO, Lohr JM, Lynn SJ (eds.). Guilford, ISBN 1593850700, p. 65. and is a classic example of the Forer effect.Carroll, Robert Todd (January 9, 2004). [Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®]. The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved January 8, 2004.

Contents

Historical development

C. G. Jung first spoke about typology at the Munich Psychological Congress in 1913. Katharine Cook Briggs began her research into personality in 1917, developing a four-type framework: Social; Thoughtful; Executive; Spontaneous. In 1923 Jung's Psychological Types was published in English translation (having first been published in German in 1921). Katharine Briggs' first publications are two articles describing Jung's theory, in the journal New Republic in 1926 (Meet Yourself Using the Personality Paint Box) and 1928 (Up From Barbarism). Katharine Briggs' daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, wrote a prize-winning mystery novel Murder Yet to Come in 1929, using typological ideas. She added to her mother's typological research, which she would progressively take over entirely. In 1942, the "Briggs-Myers Type Indicator®" was created, and the Briggs Myers Type Indicator Handbook was published in 1944. The indicator changed its name to the modern form (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®) in 1956.Geyer, Peter (1998) [Some Significant Dates]. Retrieved December 5, 2005.University of Florida (2003) [Guide to the Isabel Briggs Myers Papers 1885-1992], George A. Smathers Libraries, Department of Special and Area Studies Collections, Gainesville, FL. Retrieved December 5, 2005.

About the indicator

The indicator differs from standardized tests and others measuring traits, such as intelligence, instead classifying people's preferred types. According to Myers-Briggs Theory, while types and traits are both inborn, traits can be improved akin to skills, whereas types, if supported by a healthy environment, naturally [[wikt:differentiate|differentiate]] over time. The indicator attempts to tell the order in which this occurs in each person, and it is that information, combined with interviews done with others who have indicated having the same preferences, that the complete descriptions are based on. The indicator then, is akin to an arrow which attempts to point in the direction of the proper description. The facet of the theory which posits that the features being sorted for are in fact types, and not traits which can be improved with practice, is hotly debated.

However, proponents of the indicator will explain that to learn about one's inborn traits is to create the opportunity to improve how one applies them in different contexts. In that sense, the MBTI can yield much personal change and growth.

The types the MBTI sorts for, known as [[wikt:dichotomy|dichotomies]], are extraversion / introversion, sensing / intuition, thinking / feeling and judging / perceiving. Participants are given one of 16 four-letter acronyms, such as ESTJ or INFP, indicating what their preferences are. The term best-fit types refers to the ethical code that facilitators are required to follow. It states that the person taking the indicator is always the best judge of what their preferences are and that the indicator alone should never be used to make this decision.

The preferences

Dichotomies
Extroversion Introversion
Sensing iNtuition
Thinking Feeling
Judging Perceiving
A dichotomy is a division of two mutually exclusive groups, or in this case, type preferences.

Type dynamics

The table organizing the sixteen types was created by Isabel Myers, who preferred INFP (To find the opposite type of the one you are looking at, jump over one type diagonally.)
The table organizing the sixteen types was created by Isabel Myers, who preferred INFP (To find the opposite type of the one you are looking at, jump over one type diagonally.)
By using inferential statistics an estimate of the preferences found in the US population has been gathered
By using inferential statistics an estimate of the preferences found in the US population has been gathered
The interaction of two, three, or four preferences are known as type dynamics, and when dealing with a four-preference combination it is called a type. In total, there are 16 unique types, and many more possible two and three letter combinations, which each have their own descriptive name. Additionally, it is sometimes possible to observe the interactions that each preference combination will have with another combination, although this is more unorthodox. Complete descriptions will contain the unique interactions of all four preferences in that person, and these are typically written by licensed psychologists based on data gathered from thousands of interviews and studies. The Center for Applications of Psychological Type has released short descriptions on the internet.Martin, Charles Dr. (2004) [The Sixteen Types at a Glance]. The Center for Applications of Psychological Type. Retrieved December 20, 2004. The most in-depth descriptions, including statistics, can be found in The Manual.Myers, Isabel Briggs; McCaulley Mary H.; Quenk, Naomi L.; Hammer, Allen L. (1998). MBTI Manual (A guide to the development and use of the Myers Briggs type indicator). Consulting Psychologists Press; 3rd ed edition. ISBN 0891061304

The type table

The type table is a visualization tool which is useful for discussing the dynamic qualities and interactions of preference combinations. It will typically be divided by selecting any pair of preferences and comparing or contrasting. One of the most common and basic has been used to the right. It is the grouping of the mental functions, ST, SF, NF and NT, and focuses on the combination of perception and judgment. Alternatively, if we group by the rows we will have the four attitudes which are IJ, IP, EP and EJ. There are also more complex groupings, such as combinations of perception and orientations to the outer world, which are SJ, SP, NP and NJ, or combinations of judgement and orientations to the outer world, which are TJ, TP, FP, and FJ.

Cognitive function dynamics in each type

In each type, all four of the cognitive, or mental functions, which are sensing, intuition, thinking and feeling, are present and arranged in a different order. The type acronym is used as a quick way to figure out this order, which is slightly different in introverts and extroverts. An important point to remember is that the first and last letter of the type are used as guides to figure out the order of the middle two letters, which are the main priority. The chart below this section has the dynamics worked out for each type.

Introverts

If the first letter of the type is an I, such as in INFP, then the dominant is introverted. The next step is to figure out which of the middle two letters this applies to, which is done by looking to the last letter. (The last letter represents the extraverted function). If it is a P, then the dominant will be the third letter, which is the judging function (the process is backwards and slightly confusing for introverts). If it is a J, then it will be the second letter, which is the perceiving function. Already it is possible to tell that the INFP has an introverted dominant, and that it is feeling, which is called introverted feeling. Also evident is that the auxiliary is intuition.

The second states the functions alternate every other in orientation. For introverts, it would proceed introverted, extraverted, introverted, extraverted. The third function of the introverted personality will be the opposite of the second. For the INFP, the second is extraverted intuition, so the third is introverted sensing. The fourth will be the opposite of the first, which ends up as extraverted thinking.

Extroverts

If the first letter of the type is an E, such as ESTJ, then the dominant is extraverted. The next step, which is slightly different from that in introverts, is to figure out to which of the middle two letters this applies. If the last letter is a P, then the dominant will be the second letter, and if it is a J, then it will be the third letter. Thus, we can tell from this that the first or dominant in the ESTJ is extraverted thinking, and the second is introverted sensing. The third, which is the opposite of the second, is introverted/extraverted (see above) intuition, and the fourth is introverted feeling.

Function table

Type
ISITEJ
ISIFEJ
INIFEJ
INITEJ
Dominant or first Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition
Auxiliary or second Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking
Tertiary or third Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling
Inferior or fourth Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing
Type
ISETIP
ISEFIP
INEFIP
INETIP
Dominant or first Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking
Auxiliary or second Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition
Tertiary or third Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing
Inferior or fourth Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling
Type
ESETIP
ESEFIP
ENEFIP
ENETIP
Dominant or first Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition
Auxiliary or second Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking
Tertiary or third Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling
Inferior or fourth Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing
Type
ESITEJ
ESIFEJ
ENIFEJ
ENITEJ
Dominant or first Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking
Auxiliary or second Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition
Tertiary or third Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing
Inferior or fourth Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling

Below, the MBTI personality archetypes, after David West Keirsey [link]. Keirsey adds four "Temperaments": SP - Artisan; SJ - Guardian; NF - Idealist; and NT - Rational.

ISITEJ
ISIFEJ
INIFEJ
INITEJ
Inspector Protector Counselor Mastermind
ISETIP
ISEFIP
INEFIP
INETIP
Crafter Composer Healer Architect
ESETIP
ESEFIP
ENEFIP
ENETIP
Promoter Performer Champion Inventor
ESITEJ
ESIFEJ
ENIFEJ
ENITEJ
Supervisor Provider Teacher Field Marshal

Controversy surrounding the cognitive functions

Isabel Myers interpreted Jung's writing as saying that the auxiliary, tertiary, and inferior functions are always in the opposite attitude of the dominant. Many, however, have found Jung's writing to be ambiguous, and those who study and follow Jung's theories (Jungians) are typically adamant that Myers is incorrect. Some Jungians assert that Jung made explicit the point that the tertiary function is actually in the same attitude as the dominant, providing balance. More recently, typologists have examined the relationships between all four functions in both attitudes —introverted or extroverted. Whether looking at the four functions, or eight "function attitudes," the inferior function remains most unconscious (least developed).

Temperament

Keirsey's four temperaments within the MBTI.
Keirsey's four temperaments within the MBTI.
Hippocrates, a Greek philosopher who lived from 460-377 B.C., proposed four humours in his writings. These were blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. Around A.D. 190, Galen corresponded these to four temperaments: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric and melancholic. In 1978, David Keirsey and Marilyn Bates reintroduced temperament theory in modern form and identified them as Artisan, Guardian, Idealist, and Rationalist. After developing modern temperament theory, Keirsey discovered the MBTI, and found that by combining Sensing with the perceiving functions, SP (Artisan) and SJ (Guardian), and iNtuition with the judging functions, NF (Idealist) and NT (Rationalist), he had descriptions similar to his four temperaments.Keirsey, David (1998). Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence. Prometheus Nemesis Book Co Inc; 1st ed edition. ISBN 1885705026Keirsey, David (2001). [Keirsey Temperament versus Myers-Briggs Types]. Retrieved December 20, 2004.

The Manual states on page 59 that, "It is important to recognize that temperament theory is not a variant of type theory, nor is type theory a variant of temperament theory." Keirsey later went on to develop the Keirsey Temperament Sorter, which was first included in his book Please Understand Me.

About the test, scoring and psychometrics

The current test asks 93 forced-choice questions, which means there are only two options. Participants may skip questions if they feel they are unable to choose. Using psychometric techniques, such as item response theory, the test will then be scored and will attempt to identify which dichotomy the participant prefers. After taking the test, participants are given a readout of their score, which will include a bar graph and number of how many points they received on a certain scale. Confusion over the meaning of these numbers often causes them to be related to trait theory, and people mistakenly believe, for example, that their intuition is "more developed" than their sensing, or vice versa.

During construction of the test, thousands of items are used, and most are thrown out because they do not have high midpoint discrimination, meaning the results of that one item do not, on average, move an individual score away from the midpoint. Using only items with high midpoint discrimination allows the test to have fewer items on it but still provide as much statistical information as a test with many more items with lower midpoint discrimination. The test requires five points one way or another before it is nearly as sure it can statistically be concerning a preference.

Statistical studies

McCrae & Costa McCrae, R R; Costa, P T (1989) Reinterpreting the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator From the Perspective of the Five-Factor Model of Personality. Journal of Personality, 57(1):17-40. present correlations between the MBTI scales and the Big Five personality construct, which is a conglomeration of characteristics found in nearly all personality and psychological tests. The five personality characteristics are extraversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability (or neuroticism). The following study is based on the results from 267 men followed as part of a longitudinal study of ageing. (Similar results were obtained with 201 women.)

  Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientiousness Neuroticism
E-I -.74 .03 -.03 .08 .16
S-N .10 .72 .04 -.15 -.06
T-F .19 .02 .44 -.15 .06
J-P .15 .30 -.06 -.49 .11
The closer the number is to 1.0 or -1.0, the higher the degree of correlation.

These data suggest that four of the MBTI scales are related to the Big Five personality traits. These correlations show that E-I and S-N are strongly related to extraversion and openness respectively. T-F and J-P are more weakly related to agreeableness and conscientiousness respectively. The emotional stability dimension of the Big Five is largely absent from the MBTI.

Split-half reliability of the MBTI scales is good, although test-retest reliability is sensitive to the time between tests. However, because the MBTI dichotomises scores in the middle of the distribution, type allocations are less reliable. Within each scale about 83% of categorisations remain the same when retested within nine months, and around 75% when retested after nine months. About 50% of people tested within nine months remain the same overall type and 36% remain the same after nine months. Harvey, R J (1996) Reliability and Validity, in MBTI Applications. A.L. Hammer, Editor. Consulting Psychologists Press: Palo Alto, CA. p. 5- 29.

Ethics

Before purchasing the test, practitioners are required to consent to an ethical code, in addition to meeting the educational requirements of class B and C psychological tests and assessments. After consenting to this code the usage of the indicator is largely unmonitored, which sometimes leads to abuses of the instrument. The ethical code contains, but is not limited to, the following points:The Myers & Briggs Foundation. [Ethical Use of the MBTI® Instrument]. Retrieved December 20, 2004.The Center for Applications of Psychological Type. [MBTI® Code of Ethics]. Retrieved December 20, 2004.

  1. Results should be given directly to respondents and are strictly confidential, including from employers.
  2. Respondents should be informed of the nature of the test before taking it, and must choose to take it voluntarily.
  3. Allow respondents to clarify their results. They are always the last word as to which type is truly theirs. They should then be provided a written description of their preferences.
  4. The test must be used in accordance with The Manual.

Criticisms and Skeptical view

Scientific skeptics such as Robert Todd Carroll, author of The Skeptic's Dictionary, have presented several potential problems with the MBTI. The opinion of the MBTI in academic circles is often so low that it is dismissed as pseudo-psychology. It only features on some academic curricula as an example of a bad test. It is not taught as part of Master's level programs in Psychology at any Australian University.

Neither Katharine Cook Briggs nor Isabel Briggs Myers had any scientific, medical, psychiatric or psychological qualifications. Isabel Briggs Myers had a bachelors degree in Political Science. The theory of psychological types created by Carl Jung was not based on any controlled studies —the only statistical study Jung performed was in the field of astrology. Carroll argues that Jung may not even have approved of the MBTI, quoting,

"My scheme of typology is only a scheme of orientation. There is such a factor as introversion, there is such a factor as extraversion. The classification of individuals means nothing, nothing at all. It is only the instrumentarium for the practical psychologist to explain for instance, the husband to a wife or vice versa."
Further, Jung's methods primarily included introspection and anecdote, methods largely rejected by the modern field of cognitive psychology.

The test's owners, publishers and test administrators, have a clear financial interest in promoting the test as scientific and thus may not be unbiased sources of information about this test. Indeed, much of the positive information presented about the MBTI is from the Consulting Psychologists Press (the MBTI's publishers) and associated organisations.

The basic skeptical claim against the MBTI is that any conclusions made from the types lack falsifiability, which can cause confirmation bias in the interpretation of the results. It has also been argued that the terminology of the MBTI is so vague and complicated that it allows any kind of behavior to fit any personality type, resulting in the Forer effect, where an individual gives a high rating to a positive description that supposedly applies specifically to him. Therefore it is difficult to validate any of the claims made by the MBTI using scientific methods. Carroll says, "no matter what your preferences, your behavior will still sometimes indicate contrasting behavior. Thus, no behavior can ever be used to falsify the type, and any behavior can be used to verify it."

The MBTI has not been validated by double-blind tests, in which participants accept reports written for other participants, and are asked whether or not the report suits them, and thus may not qualify as a scientific assessment. The MBTI has also been criticised on the two measures of any psychometric test: validity and reliability. Test retest reliability is considered to be low, with test takers who retake the test often being assigned a different type. Validity has been questioned on theoretical grounds.

Scores on the individual subscales are distributed in a centre weighted platykurtic manner similar, but not identical, to a normal distribution. A cut-off exists at the centre of the subscale such that a score on one side is classified as one type, and a score on the other side as the opposite type. This leads to people who are very small distances apart on their scores being categorised as being qualitatively different from one another because they fall on opposite sides of the cut-off, while being lumped in with much more extreme scores that fall on the same side of the cut-off. For this approach to be valid the sixteen different personality types in the MBTI should do more than simply tell us that someone scored above or below the cut-off score, it should pick-out a real subgroup of people who share characteristics over and above the score. This is in fact the view of the designers of the MBTI. However, evidence for the existence of these subtypes, independent of the underlying subscales, is difficult to prove.Matthews, P (2004) [The MBTI is a flawed measure of personality]. bmj.com Rapid Responses.

As well as questioning the scientific validity of the MBTI others have argued that, while the MBTI may be useful for self-understanding, it is commonly used for pigeonholing people or for self-pigeonholing which may be of limited use or even detrimental.

See also

References

Notes

External links

Authorized Myers-Briggs / Keirsey tests Unauthorized personality tests inspired by Myers-Briggs / Keirsey

Free

Commercial Additional information and essays on all 16 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Profiles
Myers-Briggs Types
Keirsey Temperament Sorter Types
Socionics Types
ISFJ | ESFJ | ISTJ | ESTJ | ISFP | ESFP | ISTP | ESTP
INFJ | ENFJ | INTJ | ENTJ | INFP | ENFP | INTP | ENTP

 

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