Nocebo
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In its original application, nocebo had a very specific meaning in the medical domains of pharmacology, and nosology, and aetiology.
It was a subject-oriented adjective that was used to label the harmful, injurious, unpleasant or undesirable reactions (or responses) that a subject manifested -- thus, nocebo reactions (or nocebo responses) -- as a consequence of the administration of an inert, dummy drug, in cases where these responses had not been chemically generated, and were entirely due to the subject's pessimistic belief and expectation that the inert drug in question would produce harmful, injurious, unpleasant or undesirable consequences.
It is also important to remember that in these cases, despite the fact that there is no "real" drug involved, the actual harmful, injurious, unpleasant or undesirable biochemical, physiological, behavioural, emotional and/or cognitive consequences of the administration of the inert drug are very real.
The term \"nocebo\"
The term nocebo ("I shall harm") was specifically chosen by Walter Kennedy, in 1961, to denote the counterpart of one of the more recent applications of the term placebo ("I shall please"); namely, that of a placebo being a drug that produced a beneficial, healthy, pleasant or desirable consequence in a subject, as a direct result of that subject's beliefs and expectations.Today, in the same way that the term placebo (or placebo drug) is often used in an agent-oriented way to denote an active drug that produces an entirely predictable, and intentionally sought after outcome that is experienced as pleasant or desirable (e.g., analgesia), the term nocebo (or nocebo drug) is often used to denote its counterpart, an active drug that produces an entirely predictable, and intentionally sought outcome that is experienced as unpleasant or undesirable (e.g., nausea).
Houston may have been the first to have spoken of a doctor's deliberate application of harmful "placebo" procedures, as distinct from the other, harmless sort of "placebo" procedures a doctor might apply and whose "usefulness was in direct proportion to the faith that the doctor had and the faith that he was able to inspire in his patients":
- …[and while the efficacy of the placebo procedure] is believed in by the doctor, [the placebo procedure itself] is no longer harmless but harmful, sometimes very dangerous. It would seem peculiarly contradictory to speak of the painful and dangerous placebo, yet men are so constituted that they feel the need in dire extremity of resorting to dread measures. Nervous patients in particular, feel that a certain standing and sanction is bestowed upon their maladies when violent therapeutic measures are used.Houston (1938), p.1418. In fact, Houston spoke of three significantly different categories of placebo (pp.1417-1418):
- the drug that the physician knows to be inert, but which the subject believes to be potent.
- the drug which is believed to be potent by both subject and physician, but which later investigation proves to have been totally inert.
- the drug which is believed to be potent by both subject and physician, but is asctually harmful and dangerous, rather than being inert and harmless.
Anthropologists also use the term nocebo ritual to describe a procedure, or treatment, or ritual that has been performed (or a herbal remedy or medication that has been administered) with malicious intent, by contrast with a placebo procedure or treatment or ritual that is performed with a benevolent intent.
The nocebo effect
Because the original meaning of nocebo specifically referred to a subject's response to an inert drug, the term nocebo effect can really only refer to the consequences of the application of a "harm-producing" nocebo drug (however, the concept of a "harm-producing" nocebo drug is a much later concept than either that of a nocebo response or of a nocebo reaction).The nocebo response
In the strictest sense, a nocebo response is where a drug-trial's subject's symptoms are worsened by the administration of an inert, sham,Miller (2003) or dummy (simulator) treatment, called a placebo.The original term placebo was a contraction of the term "placebo singer", which denoted an individual who simulated grief at a funeral (see Placebo (origins of technical term); and, this, by extension, came to denote any thing that simulated any other thing -- and, thus, A was a placebo or a simulator of B.
- …for Distinction Sake, a Deceiving by Words, is commonly called a Lye, and a Deceiving by Actions, Gestures, or Behavior, is called Simulation… Robert South (1643-1716)South, 1697, p.525. South was speaking of the differences between a falsehood and an honestly mistaken statement; the difference being that in order for the statement to be a lie the truth must be known, and the opposite of the truth must have been knowingly uttered. And, from this, to the extent to which a lie involves deceptive words, a simulation, involves deceptive actions, deceptive gestures, or deceptive behavior. Thus, it would seem, if a simulation is false, then the truth must be known (in order for something other than the truth to be presented in its stead) and, for the simulation to simulate; because, otherwise, one would not know what to offer up in simulation. Bacon’s essay [Of Simulation and Dissimulation] expresses somewhat similar views. Samuel Johnson thought so highly of South's definition, that he used it in the entry for simulation in his Dictionary of the English Language.
According to current pharmacological knowledge and the current understanding of cause and effect, a placebo contains no chemical (or any other agent) that could possibly cause any of the observed worsening in the subject's symptoms. Thus, any change for the worse must be due to some subject-internal factor.
So, even though the worsening of the subject's symptoms is a direct consequence of their exposure to the placebo, those symptoms have not been chemically generated by the placebo. Because this generation of symptoms entails a complex of subject-internal activities, in the strictest sense, we can never speak in terms of simulator-centred nocebo effects, but only in terms of subject-centred nocebo responses.
Although some attribute nocebo responses (or placebo responses) to a subject's gullibility, there is no evidence that an individual who manifests a nocebo/placebo response to one treatment will manifest a nocebo/placebo response to any other treatment; i.e., there is no fixed nocebo/placebo-responding trait or propensity.McGlashan, Evans & Orne (1969, p.319) found no evidence of what they termed a "placebo personality". Also, in a carefully designed study, Lasagna, Mosteller, von Felsinger & Beecher (1954), found that there was no way that any observer could determine, by testing or by interview, which subject would manifest a placebo reaction and which would not.
Also, experiments have shown that no relationship of any sort exists between an individual's measured hypnotic susceptibility and their manifestation of nocebo or placebo responses.McGlashan, Evans & Orne (1969); Stam (1984); Stam & Spanos (1987).
Why a nocebo response?
The term nocebo response was coined in 1961 by Walter Kennedy (he actually spoke of a nocebo reaction).He had observed that another, entirely different and unrelated, and far more recent meaning of the term placebo was emerging into far more common usage in the technical literature (see homonym); namely that a "placebo response" (or "placebo reaction") was a "pleasant" response to a real or sham/dummy treatment (this new and entirely different usage was based on the Latin meaning of the word placebo, "I shall please").
Kennedy chose the Latin word nocebo ("I shall harm") because it was the opposite of the Latin word placebo ("I shall please"), and used it to denote the counterpart of the placebo response: namely, an "unpleasant" response to the application of real or sham treatment.
Kennedy very strongly emphasized that his specific usage of the term nocebo did not refer to "the iatrogenic action of drugs"Kennedy (1961), p.204 -- in other words, according to Kennedy, there was no such thing as a nocebo effect, there was only a nocebo response.
He insisted that a nocebo reaction was subject-centred, and he was emphatic that the term nocebo reaction specifically referred to "to a quality inherent in the patient rather than in the remedy".
Even more significantly, Kennedy also stated that whilst "nocebo reactions do occur [they should never be confused] with true pharmaceutical effects, such as the ringing in the ears caused by quinine".
This is strong, clear and very persuasive evidence that Kennedy was precisely speaking of an outcome that had been totally generated by a subject's negative expectation of a drug or ritual's administration; which was the exact counterpart of a placebo response that would have been generated by a subject's positive expectation.
And, finally, and most definitely, Kennedy was not speaking of an active drug's unwanted, but pharmacologically predictable negative side-effects (something for which the term nocebo is being increasingly used in current literature).
Ambiguity of medical usage
In an important recent paper,Stewart-Williams & Podd (2004), p.326 Stewart-Williams and Podd argue that using the contrasting terms placebo and nocebo to label inert agents that produce pleasant, health-improving or desirable outcomes, or unpleasant, health-diminishing, or undesirable outcomes (respectively), is extremely counterproductive.For example, precisely the same inert agents can produce analgesia and hyperalgesia -- the first of which, from this definition, would be a placebo, and the second a nocebo.
A second problem is that precisely the same effect, such as immunosuppression, may be quite desirable for a particular subject with an autoimmune disorder, but be quite undesirable for most other subjects. Thus, in the first case, the effect would be a placebo, and in the second, a nocebo.
A third problem is that the prescriber does not know whether the relevant subjects consider the effects that they experience to be subjectively desirable or undesirable until some time after the drugs have actually been administered.
A fourth problem is that, in cases such as this, precisely the same phenomena are being generated in all of the subjects, and these are being generated by precisely the same drug, which is acting in all of the subjects through precisely the same mechanism. Yet, just because the phenomena in question have been subjectively considered to be desirable to one group, but not the other, the phenomena are now being labelled in two mutually exclusive ways (i.e., placebo and nocebo); and this is giving the false impression that the drug in question has produced two entirely different phenomena.
These sorts of argument produce a strong case that -- despite the fact that, in some of its applications, the term placebo is used to denote some thing that pleases (compared with it denoting an inert sumulator) -- the desirability (placeboic nature) or undesirability (noceboic nature) of the phenomena that have been manifested by a subject, subsequent to a drug's administration, should never be part of the definition of what constitutes either a placebo or a placebo response.
Ambiguity of anthropological usage
Some people maintain that belief kills (e.g., "voodoo death"Cannon (1942) describes a number of "voodoo deaths" from a variety of different cultures.) and belief heals (e.g., faith healing).A self-willed death (due to voodoo hex, evil eye, pointing the bone procedure,Zusne & Jones (1989), p.57; Róheim (1925). etc.) is an extreme form of a culture-specific syndrome,Rubel (1964) spoke of "culture bound" syndromes, which were those "from which members of a particular group claim to suffer and for which their culture provides an etiology, diagnosis, preventive measures, and regimens of healing” (p.268). or sociogenic illness, that produces a particular form of psychosomatic or psychophysiological disorder, which results in a psychogenic death.There are many recorded instances of self-willed psychogenic death. For example, the death of Ananias, as recorded in Acts 5:1-6; see Ananias and Sapphira
It is important to distinguish these self-willed deaths from other, self-imposed sorts of death, such as:
- the self-inflicted deaths of suicide, voluntary euthanasia, or the refusal of life-extending treatment;
- the heroic self-inflicted death of a soldier who throws himself on a hand grenade to save his mates, or that of the Antarctic explorer Captain Lawrence Oates (“I am just going outside and may be some time”); or
- the religious self-inflicted death of the self-immolating suttee, or the mors voluntaria religiosa of the aged person, of whom religious elders have permitted to voluntarily, peacefully and slowly end his/her life by fasting.
As the meaning of the two inter-related and opposing terms has extended, we now find anthropologists speaking, in various contexts, of nocebo or placebo (harmful or helpful) rituals, that might entail nocebo or placebo (unpleasant or pleasant) procedures, about which subjects might have nocebo or placebo (harmful or beneficial) beliefs, that are delivered by operators that might have nocebo or placebo (pathogenic, disease-generating or salutogenic, health-promoting) expectations, that are delivered to subjects that might have nocebo or placebo (negative, fearful, despairing or positive, hopeful, confident) expectations about the ritual itself, which are delivered by operators who might have nocebo or placebo (malevolent or benevolent) intentions, in the hope that the rituals will generate nocebo or placebo (lethal, injurious, harmful or restorative, curative, healthy) outcomes; and, that all of this depends upon the operator's overall beliefs in the harmful nature of the nocebo ritual or the beneficial nature of the placebo ritual.
Yet, it may become even more terminologically complex; for, as Hahn and Kleinman indicate, there can also be cases where there are paradoxical nocebo outcomes from placebo rituals,For example, the TGN1412 Drug trial [link] [link] as well as paradoxical placebo outcomes from nocebo rituals (see also unintended consequences).Writing from his extensive experience of treating cancer (including more than 1,000 melanoma cases) at Sydney Hospital, Milton (1973) warned of the impact of the delivery of a prognosis, and how many of his patients, upon receiving their prognosis, simply turned their face to the wall and died an extremely premature death: "…there is a small group of patients in whom the realisation of impending death is a blow so terrible that they are quite unable to adjust to it, and they die rapidly before the malignancy seems to have developed enough to cause death. This problem of self-willed death is in some ways analogous to the death produced in primitive peoples by witchcraft (“Pointing the bone”)." (p.1435)