Passive smoking
Encyclopedia : P : PA : PAS : Passive smoking
| The [Neutral point of view>neutrality] of this article is [NPOV disputedisputed]. Please see the discussion on the [tobacco smoking and Health effects of tobacco smoking 
 Passive smoking (also known as involuntary smoking, secondhand smoking, or Environmental Tobacco Smoke) occurs when the ambient smoke from (a) one person's burning tobacco product or (b) the smoker's exhalation is inhaled by others. There is controversy surrounding the health risks of long term exposure to second hand smoke, but the most recent studies confirm the health risks. Passive smoking is one of the key issues leading to smoking bans in workplaces, smoke-free restaurants, and public places.
Contents
Short Term EffectsSome non-smokers are able to stay in a room with smokers for quite some time and notice little or no effects. For others, however, just a few minutes or an hour of exposure can make them feel quite ill. Persons with asthma can experience attacks brought on by proximity to smoke.Tobacco smoke is an allergen, and allergy sufferers can experience stuffy, runny noses, watery eyes, sneezing, coughing, wheezing, and all the other typical allergy symptoms within minutes of exposure. Some people with no known allergies and without asthma may cough in smoke-filled rooms, get headaches, feel nauseous, feel sleepy, and experience other ill effects. Many former smokers, and those who are trying to quit do not like to be around smoke as it can cause them to have cravings. Some people simply do not like the odor, which clings to hair and clothing. Many of these short-term effects terminate after the exposure ends. Repeated exposure, however, is believed to cause more serious long-term effects. Long Term EffectsA wide array of negative effects are often attributed, in whole or in part, to frequent, long term exposure to second hand smoke. The extent to which the smoke influences the development of these negative effects is the subject of much debate and controversy. Some of the symptoms which have been or are frequently attributed to second hand smoke include:
Epidemiological studies of passive smokingEpidemiological studies suggest that non-smokers exposed to secondhand smoke are at risk for many of the health problems associated with direct smoking.In 1992, the Journal of the American Medical Association published a review of the evidence available from epidemiological and other studies regarding the relationship between secondhand smoke and heart disease and estimated that passive smoking was responsible for 35,000 to 40,000 deaths per year in the United States in the early 1980s. Some studies make the claim that non-smokers living with smokers have about a 25 per cent increase in risk of death from heart attack, are more likely to suffer a stroke, and can sometimes contract genital cancer. Some research, such as the Helena Study, suggests that risks to nonsmokers may be even greater than this estimate. The Helena Study claims that exposure to secondhand smoke increases the risk of heart disease among non-smokers by as much as 60 percent. Parents who smoke appear to be a risk factor for children and babies and are associated with low birth weight babies, sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), bronchitis and pneumonia, and middle ear infections. In 2002, a group of 29 experts from 12 countries convened by the Monographs Programme of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the World Health Organization (WHO) reviewed all significant published evidence related to tobacco smoking and cancer. It concluded:
The National Asthma Council of Australia [link] cites studies showing that: Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is probably the most important indoor pollutant, especially around young children:
Enstrom and KabatTwo recent studies by Enstrom and Kabat conclude that the previous studies overestimated the effect of Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) on both lung cancer and heart diseases.These studies have been criticised by the American Cancer Society, which describes the study as "misinformation", as both the original cohort and Enstrom and Kabat's spotty follow-ups, were entirely inappropriate for reliably determining ETS exposure, smoking history, etc. Furthermore, Enstrom and Kabat are funded by the tobacco industry. ASH published an analysis of the studies that concluded that the studies can not be trusted, as there appears to be a direct conflict of interest. Alongside other faults, this analysis also criticizes the BMJ for failing to inform readers who funded the studies. Enstrom and Kabat have rejected this criticism, claiming that the American Cancer Society funded most of the first study, but pulled their funding at the last minute, forcing the researchers to look elsewhere to find funding. Further, they say were only able to find funding from a foundation funded by the tobacco companies. In response, ACS vice-president Michael Thun asserts that Enstrom had been funded by the tobacco industry since 1997 without informing the ACS, and that Enstrom had communicated with Philip Morris about the potential value of the CPS-I follow-up as early as 1990. The study also attracted criticism for a number of methodological flaws:
In addition, Enstrom and Kabat's work confirmed some harmful effects of secondhand smoke, in particular that it increased the risk of COPD. Studies of passive smoking in animalsExperimental studies in which animals are exposed to tobacco smoke have produced results supporting the view that exposure to secondhand or 'environmental' tobacco smoke is carcinogenic. The International Agency for Research on Cancer expert group concluded that:
A study by Colorado State University found that a dog that has exposure to a smoker in the home is 1.6 times more likely to develop lung cancer than a dog that is not exposed to a smoker. The study also found that skull shape had an effect on the estimated risk of lung cancer in dogs. Risk level of passive smokingThe International Agency for Research on Cancer concluded in 2002 that:
In May 2006, the United States government's Center for Disease Control issued the first new study on secondhand smoke in 20 years. Surgeon General Richard Carmona summarized, "The health effects of secondhand smoke exposure are more pervasive than we previously thought. The scientific evidence is now indisputable: secondhand smoke is not a mere annoyance. It is a serious health hazard that can lead to disease and premature death in children and nonsmoking adults." The study estimated that living or working in a place where smoking is permitted increases the non-smokers' risk of developing heart disease by 25-30% and lung cancer by 20-30%. The study finds that passive smoke also causes sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), respiratory problems, ear infections and asthma attacks in children. Environmental Tobacco Smoke and Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) was shown to be a much higher source of pollution than an ecodiesel engine in regard to particulate matter (PM) emission. In fact three cigarettes smouldering in a room of 60 m3 with a limited air exchange, a setting commonly encountered in everyday life, were able to produce PM concentrations up to 10-fold that of the engine’s emissions, and up to 15-fold PM10 and PM2.5 outdoor limits, in agreement with previous data on ETS pollution observed in the hospitality industry. [link]ControversySome controversy has attended efforts to estimate the specific risk of lung cancer related to passive smoking. In 1993, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a report estimating that 3,000 lung cancer related deaths in the U.S. were caused by passive smoking every year. The Congressional Research Service issued a report that cast strong doubts on the veracity of the study [link]. Among those testifying in favour of the tobacco industry at the inquiry was Congressman Thomas J Bliley, who had received more than $22,900 from tobacco companies in 1993-4, and more than $53,000 from them in 1995-1996.Philip Morris, R.J. Reynolds and groups representing growers, distributors and marketers took legal action, claiming that the EPA manipulated scientific studies and ignored accepted scientific and statistical practices. In 1998 United States District Court Judge William Osteen, a former tobacco lobbyist [link], vacated this study, declaring it null and void in a 92-page decision, that found that the EPA had manipulated results and violated scientific norms in order to achieve its pre-determined conclusion that passive smoke was harmful. Even though Osteen had worked as a lobbyist for the tobacco industry prior to becoming a judge, he has delivered rulings contrary to the interests of tobacco companies [link]. Osteen's decision was overturned by the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit in 2002 on the technical grounds that the report was not a reviewable agency action under the Administrative Procedure Act, and the EPA classification of tobacco was ultimately left intact. Because the substantive dispute was never resolved, the findings in Osteen's report are still used to argue that the issue of ETS is driven by politics rather than science. Tobacco industry responseThe passive smoking issue poses a serious economic threat to the tobacco industry. It has broadened the definition of smoking beyond a personal habit to something with a social impact, it has been the cause of successful litigation against employers by workers with a history of exposure to smoke, and it has resulted in various types of smoking restrictions. Accordingly, the tobacco industry have developed several strategies to minimise its impact on their business:
Smoking bans
Countries (such as Ireland and Scotland) and jurisdictions (like New York State and Washington State) now prohibit smoking in public buildings as well as private businesses such as restaurants and clubs. The state of Florida bans smoking in all establishments whose income is primarily generated from the sale of food. Many office buildings contain specially ventilated smoking areas; some are required by law to provide them. In addition, local governments, including cities and counties such as McLean County, Illinois, Marion County, Indiana, and Jackson County, Indiana are beginning to ban smoking in various places. The Marion County ban forbids smoking in nearly all places of employment [link]. Many business owners protest such bans by arguing that smoking customers will go elsewhere, and that business at smoke-free workplaces will suffer. However, in 2006 a US surgeon general reviewSurgeon General, "[The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to Tobacco Smoke: A Report of the Surgeon General]", 27 June 2006. of studies suggests that this may not be the case, and that business may actually improveRoesler, Richard. "[Surgeon general: No safe level of secondhand smoke.]" CNN.com, Jun. 27, 2006.. NotesExternal links
From Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Original article here. Support Wikipedia by contributing or donating. |