In an ongoing dispute, the PRC claims sovereignty over Taiwan and some nearby islands, which have been controlled by the Republic of China (ROC) since 1945. The PRC asserts the Republic of China to be an illegitimate and supplanted entity and administratively categorizes Taiwan as a province of the PRC. The ROC does not recognize these claims, administering itself as a sovereign country with a democratically elected government and presidency. The term "mainland China" is sometimes used to denote the area under the PRC's rule, but usually excludes the two Special Administrative Regions, Hong Kong and Macau.
Following a series of dramatic economic failures, Mao stepped down from his position as chairman in 1959, with Liu Shaoqi, elected by the National People's Congress, as successor. Mao still had a huge influence over the Party, but was removed from day-to-day management of economic affairs, which came under the control of a more moderate leadership consisting of Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping, and others who initiated economic reforms.
In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, which is viewed by many analysts and historians as an attempt to purge the moderate leadership and strike-back at Mao's rivals by mobilizing the population in support of his thought. Mao's sympathizers argued it as an experiment in direct democracy and a genuine attempt at fighting corruption and other negative influences within Chinese society. However, Mao's personality cult at the time and the hierarchical structure of the "Red Guard," as well as the economic reconstruction needed after these events, tend to contradict this interpretation. Extreme disorder followed in the wake of the Cultural Revolution, but premier Zhou Enlai mediated its destructive impacts and helped the moderate forces regain influence.
After Mao's death in 1976 and the arrest of the despised Gang of Four, Deng Xiaoping quickly wrested power from Mao's anointed successor Hua Guofeng. Although Deng never became the head of the Party or State himself, his influence within the Party led the country to economic reforms, exemplified by one of his favorite sayings: "It doesn't matter if a cat is black or white, so long as it catches mice."Zwaan, Herman de. ["I4": Oneliners and proverbs It-Jz]. Retrieved April 16, 2006. The Communist Party subsequently loosened governmental control over people's personal lives and the communes were disbanded with many peasants receiving multiple land leases, which greatly increased incentives and agricultural production. This turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy. The PRC adopted its current constitution on December 4, 1982.
Despite market reforms, the Communist Party of China remains in sole control, requiring the registration and supervision of all civic organizations. The CPC suppresses groups that it claims are threats to social stability and national unity, such as Falun Gong and the separatist movement in Tibet. Supporters of these policies claim that they safeguard stability in a society that was torn apart by class differences and rivalries, has no tradition of civil participation, and limited rule of law. Opponents claim that these policies severely curtail human rights and that they have resulted in a police state, creating an atmosphere of fear and ignorance.
Window washer on one of the thousands of skyscrapers in Shanghai. Chinese society has been rapidly modernizing in the last two decades, spawning the largest urban migration within a generation in human history.
In 1989 the death of the pro-reform official, Hu Yaobang, helped to spark the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, during which students and others campaigned for democratic reform and freedom. The protests were soon put down on June 4 when PLA troops entered and forcibly cleared the square, resulting in hundreds of casualities. This event brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the PRC government. The June 4th incident has been a taboo subject within the government, though the Party did defend its actions by saying that it was necessary for the continued stability and economic development of the country.
President Jiang Zemin and Premier Zhu Rongji, both former mayors of Shanghai, led post-Tiananmen China in the 1990s, bringing unprecedented wealth and international standing to the country. Under Jiang Zemin's ten years of administration, China pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual GDP growth rate of 11.2%. The country formally joined the WTO in 2001.[Nation bucks trend of global poverty] (July 11, 2003). China Daily.[China's Average Economic Growth in 90s Ranked 1st in World] (March 1, 2000). People's Daily Online.
Although China needs economic growth to spur its development, the government has begun to worry that rapid economic growth could negatively impact the country's resources and environment. Another concern is that many people are not benefiting from China's economic miracle. As a result, the PRC, under current President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao, have initiated policies to address these issues, but the outcome remains to be seen.["China worried over pace of growth"]. BBC. Accessed 16 April, 2006.
The country is mainly run by the Communist Party of China (CPC), but there are other political parties in the PRC, called "democratic parties", which participate in the People's Political Consultative Conference but mostly serve to endorse CPC policies. While there have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that open contested elections are now held at the village and town levels,[link] and that legislatures have shown some assertiveness from time to time, the party retains effective control over governmental appointments. This is because, in the absence of meaningful opposition, the CPC wins by default in most electorates. ["Does China’s Land-Tenure System
Discourage Structural Adjustment?" by Bryan Lohmar and Agapi Somwaru]. 1 May 2006. USDA Economic Research Service. URL accessed 3 May 2006. The CPC has been enforcing its rule by clamping down on political dissidents while simultaneously attempting to reduce dissent by improving the economy and allowing public expression of personal grievances so long as they are not organized. Current political concerns in China include lessening the growing gap between rich and poor, and fighting corruption within the government leadership.[China sounds alarm over fast-growing gap between rich and poor]. Retrieved April 16, 2006. The support that the Communist Party of China has among the Chinese population in general is unclear because there are no consistently contested national elections.[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-12/08/content_288018.htm Also, private conversations and anecdotal information often reveal conflicting views. However, according to a survey conducted in Hong Kong, where a relatively high level of freedom is enjoyed, the current CPC leaders have received substantial votes of support when residents were asked to rank their favourite Chinese leaders from the mainland and Taiwan.["HKU POP SITE releases the latest ratings of the top 10 political figures in Mainland China and Taiwan as well as people's appraisal of past Chinese leaders"]. 4 April 2006. HKU POP. URL accessed 3 May 2006.
The Karakoram Highway connecting China and Pakistan is an example of China's international development involvements.
The PRC maintains diplomatic relations with most countries in the world. In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole representative for "China" in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.Eddy Chang (Aug 22, 2004). [Perseverance will pay off at the UN] The Taipei Times. It is considered a founding member of UN, though the PRC was not in control of China at the time. (See China and the United Nations). The PRC was also a former member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement.
Under the One-China policy, the PRC has made it a precondition to establishing diplomatic relations that the other country acknowledges its claim to Taiwan and sever any official ties with the Republic of China (ROC) government. The government actively opposes foreign travels by former and present Taiwanese officials, such as Lee Teng-hui and Chen Shui-bian, and other politically controversial figures, such as Tenzin Gyatso, the current Dalai Lama of Tibet.
China has been playing an increasing role in calling for free trade areas and security pacts amongst its Asia-Pacific neighbors. In 2004, China proposed an entirely new East Asia Summit (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues that pointedly excluded the United States.Dillon, Dana and John Tkacik Jr, ["China’s Quest for Asia"], Policy Review, December 2005 and January 2006, Issue No. 134. Accessed 22 April 2006. The EAS, which includes ASEAN Plus Three, India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005. China is also a founding member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), with Russia and the Central Asian republics.
Much of the current foreign policy is based on the concept of China's peaceful rise. However, conflicts with foreign countries have occurred at various times in its recent history, particularly with the United States; e.g., the U.S. bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade during the Kosovo conflict in May 1999 and the U.S.-China spy plane incident in April 2001. Also, its foreign relations with many other Western nations suffered for a time following the Tiananmen Square Incident in 1989, sometimes referred to as the Tiananmen Square Massacre or June 4th Incident. The relationship between China and Japan has been strained at times by Japan's refusal to acknowledge its war-time past to the satisfaction of the PRC, e.g. revisionist comments made by prominent Japanese officials, and insufficient attention paid to the Nanjing Massacre and other atrocities committed during World War II in Japanese history textbooks. Another point of conflict between the two countries is the frequent visits by Japanese government officials to the Yasukuni Shrine, which enshrines thousands of World War II war criminals, including 14 Class A convicts.
The PRC, despite possession of nuclear weapons and delivery systems, is widely seen by military researchers both within and outside of China as having only limited power projection capability, so it is not yet considered to be a true superpower, though it is widely regarded as a major regional power.Nolt, James H. [ANALYSIS: The China-Taiwan military balance]. Asia Times. Retrieved April 15, 2006. This is due to the limited effectiveness of its navy, which has no aircraft carriers, and a large but obsolete air force.
Much progress has been made in the last decade and the PRC continues to make efforts to modernize its military. It has purchased state-of-the-art fighter jets from Russia, such as the Su-30s, and has produced its own relatively modern fighters, specifically the J-10s and the J-11s.[SinoDefence: Fighter Aircraft]. Accessed 15 April, 2006 It has also acquired and improved upon the Russian S-300 Surface-to-Air missile systems, which are considered to be among the best aircraft-intercepting systems in the world.[SinoDefence: Surface-to-air Missile System] (2006). Accessed 15 April, 2006. The PRC's armoured and rapid-reaction forces have been updated with enhanced electronics and targeting capabilities. In recent years, much attention has been focused on building a navy with blue-water capability.[SinoDefence: Aircraft carrier programme] (2006). Accessed 15 April, 2006
Human rights
The Constitution of the People's Republic of China guarantees freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial, freedom of religion, universal suffrage, and property rights.[China Constitution]. 16 March 2004. Accessed 28 April 2006. However, censorship of political speech and information is openly and routinely used to protect what the government considers national security interests.[China Human Rights Fact Sheet] (March 1995). Retrieved April 16, 2006. The government has a policy of suppressing most protests and organizations that it considers a threat to social stability and national unity, as was the case with the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. However, there are limits to the methods that the Party is willing or able to use as the media have become increasingly active in publicizing social problems, and exposing corruption and inefficiency at lower levels of government. The Party has also been rather unsuccessful at controlling information, and in some cases has had to change policies in response to public outrage. Although organized opposition against the Party is not accepted, demonstrations over local issues are frequently and increasingly tolerated.
At times, the PRC is faced with criticism from Western governments and NGOs concerning allegations of gross human rights violations. These criticisms allege that there existed a widespread practice of lengthy detentions without trial, forced confessions, torture, mistreatment of prisoners, as well as allegations of restrictions on freedoms of speech, assembly, association, religion, the press, and workers' rights.[China Human Rights Fact Sheet] (March 1995). Furthermore, China leads the world in capital punishment, accounting for roughly 90% of total death-penalty executions in 2004,http://www.commondreams.org/headlines05/0405-07.htm 5 April 2005. Accessed 23 June 2006. The Independent/UK article, republished. although the government of Singapore is the top executioner in terms executions per capita. The PRC government responds to these criticisms by arguing that the notion of human rights should factor in standards-of-living. It views the rise in China's standard-of-living as an indicator of improvement in the human rights issue.["China's reform and opening-up promotes human rights, says premier"]. 11 December 2003. Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States. Accessed 28 April 2006.
Political divisions
The People's Republic of China has administrative control over 22 provinces (省); the government of the PRC considers Táiwān (台湾) to be another of its provinces.Gwillim Law (April 2, 2005). [Provinces of China]. Retrieved April 15, 2006. (See Political status of Taiwan for more information). Apart from provinces, there are 5 Autonomous regions (自治区) containing several minority groups, 4 municipalities (直辖市), and 2 Special Administrative Regions (特别行政区), which enjoy considerable autonomy.
The 22 provinces, 5 autonomous regions and 4 municipalities can be collectively referred to as "mainland China", a term which usually excludes Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan.
Province-level divisions of the People's Republic of China.
The following are a list of administrative divisions of areas under the control of the People's Republic of China.
The territory of the PRC contains a large variety of landscapes. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, grasslands can be seen. Southern China is dominated by hill country and low mountain ranges. In the central-east are the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Huang He and Yangtze River (Chang Jiang). Other major rivers include the Xijiang River, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur.
To the west, major mountain ranges, notably the Himalayas with China's highest point Mount Everest, and high plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert.
A major issue is the continued expansion of deserts, particularly the Gobi Desert.["Beijing hit by eighth sandstorm"]. BBC news. Accessed 17 April, 2006. Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices result in dust storms plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Taiwan, Korea and Japan. Dust from the northern plains has been tracked to the West Coast of the United States. Water, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries.
Beginning in late 1978, the Chinese leadership has been reforming the economy from a Soviet-style centrally planned economy to a more market-oriented economy that is still within a rigid political framework under Party control. The reforms replaced collectivization with privatization of farmlands, increased the responsibility of local authorities and industry managers, allowed a wide variety of small-scale enterprises to flourish, and promoted foreign investment. Price controls were also relaxed. These changes resulted in mainland China's shift from a planned economy to a mixed economy. China became a member of the World Trade Organization in 2001.
The government emphasizes personal income and consumption by introducing new management systems to help increase productivity. The government also focuses on foreign trade as a major vehicle for economic growth, which led to 5 Special Economic Zones (SEZ: Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Shantou, Xiamen, Hainan Province) where investment laws are relaxed so as to attract foreign capital. Since the 1990s, SEZs and similar concepts have been expanded to other major Chinese cities, including Shanghai and Beijing. The result has been a 6-fold increase of GDP since 1978. Chinese economic development is among the fastest in the world, and has been growing at an average annual GDP rate of 9.4% for the past 25 years.Malik, Khalid (December 16, 2005). ["Launch of the China Human Development Report 2005"]. At the end of 2005, the PRC became the fourth largest economy in the world by exchange rate, and the second largest in the world after the United States by purchasing power parity at US$8,158 trillion [CIA Factbook]. But with its large population this still gives an average GDP per person of only an estimated US$6,200, about 1/7th that of the United States.
Mainland China has a reputation as being a low-cost manufacturer, which caused notable disputes in global markets. This is largely because Chinese corporations can produce many products far more cheaply than other parts of Asia or Latin America, and because expensive products produced in developed countries like the United States are in large part uncompetitive compared to European or Asian goods. Another factor is the unfavorable exchange rate between the Chinese yuan and the United States dollar to which it was pegged.
On July 21, 2005 the People's Bank of China announced that it would move to a floating peg, allowing its currency to move against the United States dollar by 0.3% a day, while 3% a day against other currencies.[China widens yuan, non-dollar trading range to 3%] (September 23, 2005). Retrieved April 15, 2006. Many high-tech foreign companies also have difficulty exporting to China due to federal government restrictions, which exacerbated the trade gap between the PRC and other countries, particulary the US. With the elimination of clothing quotas, China stands to take over a large chunk of the worldwide textile industry. [The New York Times].[The New York Times].
Preferential tax incentives are also given as a direct fiscal incentive to manufacture in China, whether for export or for the local market of 1.3 billion people. China is attempting to harmonize the system of taxes and duties it imposes on enterprises, domestic and foreign alike. As a result, preferential tax and duty policies that benefit exporters in special economic zones and coastal cities have been targeted for revision.
There is a large wealth disparity between the coastal regions and the remainder of the country. To counter this potentially destabilizing problem, the government has initiated the China Western Development strategy (2000), the Revitalize Northeast China initiative (2003), and the Rise of Central China policy (2004), which are all aimed at helping the interior of China to catch up.
After the Sino-Soviet split, China started to develop its own indigenous nuclear deterrent and delivery systems, successfully detonating its first surface nuclear test in 1964 at Lop Nor. A natural outgrowth of this was a satellite launching program, which culminated in 1970 with the launching of Dongfang Hong I, the first Chinese satellite. This made the PRC the fifth nation to independently launch a satellite. In 1992, the Shenzhou manned spaceflight program was authorized.[China's First Man-made Satellite] (2003). Ministry of Culture. Retrieved April 16, 2006. After four tests, Shenzhou 5 was launched on October 15, 2003, using a Long March 2F rocket and carrying Chinese astronaut Yang Liwei, making the PRC the third country to put a human being into space through its own endeavors.Wade, Mark. [Shenzhou] (6 January 2006). Retrieved April 16, 2006. With the successful completion of the second manned mission, Shenzhou 6 in October 2005, the country plans to build a Chinese Space Station in the near future and achieve a lunar landing in the next decade.Wade, Mark. (30 March 2005)[Project 921-2]. Retrieved April 16, 2006.
The Chinese government continues to place heavy emphasis on research and development by creating greater public awareness of innovation, and reforming financial and tax systems to promote growth in cutting-edge industries. President Hu Jintao in January 2006 called for China to make the transition from a manufacturing-based economy to an innovation-based one, and this year's National People's Congress has approved large increases in research funding. Controversial areas such as stem-cell research and gene therapy face minimal regulation in China.
G030 northbound in Hebei province. There are currently 41,000 km (25,000 mi) of expressways in China, half that of the US
Transportation in the mainland of the People's Republic of China has improved remarkably since the late 1990s as part of a government effort to link the entire nation through a series of expressways known as the National Trunk Highway System (NTHS). Between 2001 and 2005, more than 25,000 km (16,000 mi) of expressways were built in China for a total of 41,000 km (25,000 mi), second only to the United States.Li, Lin (April 4, 2006). ["Expressways being built at frenetic pace"]. SINA English.
Shanghai Metro platform, line 2. Chinese cities are undergoing massive subway construction as they expand and develop.
Private car ownership is increasing at an annual rate of 15%, though it remains uncommon largely due to government policies designed to make car ownership expensive, via taxes and toll roads. ["China's Car Drive"] (June 13, 2005). Earlywarning.
Air travel has increased considerably, but remains out of reach for most ordinary mainland Chinese. Long distance transportation is still dominated by railways and charter bus systems.
Cities are increasingly building subways or light rail systems, such as in Shanghai and Beijing. Hong Kong has one of the most developed transport systems in the world.
As of July 2006, there are 1,313,973,713 people in China. About 20.8% (male 145,461,833; female 128,445,739) are 14 years old or younger, 71.4% (male 482,439,115; female 455,960,489) are between 15 and 64 years old, and 7.7% (male 48,562,635; female 53,103,902) are over 65 years old. The population growth rate for 2006 is 0.59%.[CIA World Factbook]. 20 April 2006. URL accessed 3 May 2006. The PRC officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, the largest of which are Han Chinese, who constitute about 91.9% of the total population.[CIA factbook] (29 March 2006). Retrieved April 16, 2006. Large ethnic minorities include the Zhuang (16 million), Manchu (10 million), Hui (9 million), Miao (8 million), Uyghur (7 million), Yi (7 million), Tujia (5.75 million), Mongolians (5 million), Tibetans (5 million), Buyi (3 million), and Koreans (2 million).Stein, Justin J (Spring 2003). [Taking the Deliberative in China]. Retrieved April 16, 2006.
Language
The majority of languages in China (spoken by 29 ethnicities) belong to the Sino-Tibetan language family. There are also several major divisions or "dialects" within the Chinese language itself. The most populous dialects are Mandarin (spoken by over 70% of the population), Wu (Shanghainese) , Yue (Cantonese), Min, Xiang, Gan, and Hakka. Non-Sinitic languages spoken widely by ethnic minorities include Zhuang (Tai), Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur (Turkic), Hmong and Korean.[Languages]. 2005. GOV.cn. URL accessed 3 May 2006.
A classroom in the western region of Xinjiang. Good education is highly praised in Chinese society and competition to enter top ranked schools is fierce, even at an early age.
China in 1986 set a long-term goal to provide compulsory nine-year basic education to every child. As of 1997, there were 628,840 primary schools, 78,642 secondary schools and 1,020 higher education institutions in the PRC.[Education] (2002). Orasia co.,ltd. In February 2006, the government advanced its basic education goal by pledging to provide completely free nine-year education, including textbooks and fees, in the poorer western provinces.[China pledges free 9-year education in rural west] (February 21, 2006). China Economic Net. As of 2002, 90.9% (male: 95.1%; female: 86.5%) of the population over age 15 are literate.["Chinese People"] (2005). TravelBlog.
Many parents are highly committed in their children's education, often investing large portions of the family's income on education. Private lessons and recreational activities, such as in foreign languages or music, are popular among the middle-class families who can afford them.["China's graft: Tough talk, old message" by Mary Hennock]. 27 September 2004. BBC News. Accessed 2 may 2006.
The majority of Chinese identify themselves as non-religious, which constitute about 59% of the population, or about 767 million people.World Desk Reference. D K Publishing. ISBN 0756610990 However, religion and rituals play a significant part in the lives of many, especially the traditional beliefs of Confucianism and Taoism. About 33% of the population follow a mixture of beliefs usually referred to by statisticians as "Traditional Beliefs" or just "Other".
About 6% of the Chinese population are avowed Buddhists, with Mahayana Buddhism and Zen Buddhism being the most widely practiced. With an estimated 100 million adherents, Buddhism is the country's largest organized religion. Other forms of Buddhism, such as Theravada Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism, are practiced largely by ethnic minorities along the geographic fringes of the Chinese mainland.Macintosh, R. Scott. [China's prosperity inspires rising spirituality] (March 09, 2006). Retrieved April 15, 2006. Official figures indicate that there are currently about 20 million Muslims (mostly Hui), more than 15 million Protestants, and 5 million Catholics in the country.["China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)"]. 2004. International Religious Freedom Report 2004 - U.S. Department of State. URL accessed 30 May 2006.
With a population of over 1.3 billion, the PRC is very concerned about its population growth and has attempted with mixed results to implement a strict family planning policy. The government's goal is one child per family, with exceptions for ethnic minorities and flexibility in rural areas, where a family can have a second child if the first is a girl or physically disabled. The government's goal is to stabilize population growth early in the 21st century, though some current projections estimate a population of anywhere ranging from 1.4 billion to 1.6 billion by 2025.
The policy is resisted, particularly in rural areas, because of the need for agricultural labour and a traditional preference for boys. Families who breach the policy often lie during the census. Official government policy opposes forced abortion or sterilization, but allegations of coercion continue as local officials, who are faced with penalties for failing to curb population growth, may resort to forced abortion or sterilization, or manipulation of census figures.
The decreasing reliability of PRC population statistics since family planning began in the late 1970s has made evaluating the effectiveness of the policy difficult. Estimates by Chinese demographers of the average number of children for a Chinese woman vary from 1.5 to 2.0. The government is particularly concerned with the large imbalance in the sex ratio at birth, apparently the result of a combination of traditional preference for boys, family planning pressure, and the wide availability of ultrasound, which led to its ban for the purpose of sex-selective abortion.
Urbanization
In the past decade, China's cities expanded at an average rate of 10% annually. The country's urbanization rate increased from 17.4% to 41.8% between 1978 and 2005, a scale unprecedented in human history.Zhou Qun, Lin Yanhua. [China's urbanization encounters "urban disease"], Chinanews.cn (中国新闻网), November 11, 2005. Accessed 21 April 2005. Caught between urban and rural are the 80 to 120 million migrant workers who work part-time in the major cities of China and return home to the countryside periodically with their earnings.[China 2004 Migrant Workers], CBC Radio One, December 2004. Accessed: 21 April 2006
Today, the People's Republic of China has dozens of major cities with one million or more long-term residents, including the three global cities of Hong Kong, Beijing and Shanghai. Major cities in China play key roles in national and regional identity, culture and economics.
The figures ranked below are the 2001 estimates for the ten largest urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations (which includes suburban and rural populations). The large floating populations of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;Francesco Sisci, "China's floating population a headache for census", The Straits Times, 22 September 2000. the figures below do not include the floating population, only long-term residents.
Population (2001 est) [City Population], compiled by Thomas Brinkhoff, data from official PRC estimates for 2001. Retrieved: 20 April 2006. millions
Density (2001 est) [Demographia World Urban Areas], data from PRC estimates for 2001. Retrieved 21 April 2006. per km²
Municipality limits (2000 census) Tabulation on the 2000 population census of the People's Republic of China, compiled by the Population Census Office under the PRC State Council & Department of Population, Social, Science and Technology Statistics, Beijing: China National Bureau of Statistics Press, 2002. All data in column obtained from this reference except for Hong Kong, which uses the 2005 estimate from United Nations DESA.
For centuries, opportunity for economic and social advancement in China could be provided by high performance on imperial examinations. The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the view that calligraphy was a higher form of art than painting or drama. China's traditional values were derived from various versions of Confucianism and conservatism. A number of more authoritarian strains of thought have also been influential, such as Legalism. There was often conflict between the philosophies, such as the individualisticSong Dynastyneo-Confucians, who believed Legalism departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today. In recent years, a number of New Confucians have advocated that democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values".Bary, Theodore de. ["Constructive Engagement with Asian Values"]. Columbia University.
The first leaders of the People's Republic of China were born in the old society but were influenced by the May Fourth Movement and reformist ideals. They sought to change some traditional aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural land tenure, sexism, and a Confucian education, while preserving others, such as the family structure and obedience to the state. Many observers believe that the period following 1949 is a continuation of traditional Chinese dynastic history, while others say that the CPC's rule has damaged the foundations of Chinese culture, especially through political movements such as the Cultural Revolution, where many aspects of traditional culture were labeled 'regressive and harmful' or 'vestiges of feudalism' by the regime. They further argue that many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture, such as Confucianism, Chinese art, literature, and performing arts like Beijing opera, were altered to conform to government policies and communist propaganda. The institution of the Simplified Chinese orthography reform is controversial as well. Today, the PRC government has accepted much of traditional Chinese culture as an integral part of Chinese society, lauding it as an important achievement of the Chinese civilization and emphasizing it as being vital to the formation of a Chinese national identity.
China has one of the oldest sporting cultures in the world, spanning the course of several millennia. There is, in fact, evidence that a form of football was first played in China around 1000 AD, leading many historians to believe that the popular sport originated from China[Origins of the Great Game]. 2000. Athleticscholarships.net. Accessed 23 April 2006.. Besides soccer, some of the most popular sports in the country include martial arts, table tennis, badminton, basketball, and more recently, golf. Board games such as International Chess, Go (Weiqi), and Xiangqi (Chinese chess) are also commonly played and have well-organised formal competitions.
Physical fitness is highly emphasized in the Chinese culture. Morning exercises are a common activity and often times one can find the elderly practicing qigong in parks or students doing stretches on school campuses. Young people are especially keen on basketball, especially in urban centres with limited space and grass areas. The NBA has a huge following among Chinese youths, with Yao Ming being the idol of many. The 2008 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, will be held in Beijing, China.
