Politics of Spain
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Political developments
Parliamentary democracy was restored following the death of General Franco in 1975, who had ruled since the end of the civil war in 1939. The 1978 constitution established Spain as a parliamentary monarchy, with the Prime Minister responsible to the bicameral Cortes Generales (Cortes) elected every 4 years. On 23 February 1981, in an event known as the "23-F", rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes and tried to impose a military-backed government. However, the great majority of the military forces remained loyal to King Juan Carlos, who used his personal authority to put down the bloodless coup attempt.In October 1982, the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE), led by Felipe González Márquez, swept both the Congress of Deputies and Senate, winning an absolute majority. González and the PSOE ruled for the next 13 years. During that period, Spain joined NATO and the European Community.
In March 1996, José María Aznar's People's Party (PP) was the most voted for party, winning almost half the seats in the Congress. Aznar moved to liberalize the economy, with a program of privatizations, labor market reform, and measures designed to increase competition in selected markets, principally telecommunications. During Aznar's first term, Spain qualified for the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union. During this period, Spain participated, along with the United States and other NATO allies, in military operations in the former Yugoslavia. Spanish planes took part in the air war against Serbia in 1999 and Spanish armed forces and police personnel are included in the international peacekeeping forces in Bosnia (IFOR, SFOR) and Kosovo (KFOR).
President Aznar and the PP won reelection in March 2000, obtaining absolute majorities in both houses of parliament. This mandate allowed Aznar to form a government unencumbered by the coalition building that had characterized his earlier administration. Aznar is a staunch supporter of transatlantic relations and the War on Terrorism. For the March 2004 elections Aznar named First Vice President Mariano Rajoy to replace him as the People's Party candidate.
However, in the aftermath of the March 11 terrorist bomb attacks in Madrid, the PP lost the 2004 elections to the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) and its leader José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero. Rodríquez Zapatero was elected prime minister with the votes of PSOE and a few minor parties. He selected the first Spanish government ever to have the same number of male and female ministers.
The Crown
Article 1.3. of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 lays down that "the political form of the Spanish State is that of a Parliamentary Monarchy".
Art. 56 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 lays down that:
1. The King is the Head of State and Commander in Chief of the armed forces, the symbol of its unity and permanence. He arbitrates and moderates the regular working of the institutions, assumes the highest representation of the Spanish State in international relation, especially with those nations belonging to the same historic community, and performs the functions expressly conferred on him by the Constitution and the law.
2. His title is King of Spain, and he may use the other titles appertaining to the Crown.
3. The person of the King is inviolable and shall not be held accountable. His acts shall always be countersigned in the manner established in Article 64. Without such countersignature they shall not be valid, except as provided under Article 65,2.
Art. 57 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 lays down that:
1. The Crown of Spain shall inherited by the successors of H.M. Juan Carlos I de Borbon, the legitimate heir of the historic dynasty. Succession to the throne shall follow the regular order of primogeniture and representation, in the following order of precedence: the earlier shall precede the more distant; within the same degree, the male shall precede the female; and for the same sex, the older shall precede the younger.
Art. 62 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 lays down that it is incumbent upon the King:
a) to veto or sanction the laws and promulgate them;
b) to summon and dissolve the Cortes Generales and to call elections;
c) to call a referendum;
d) to propose a candidate for President of the Government and, as the case may be, appoint him or remove him from office;
e) to appoint and dismiss members of the Government;
f) to issue the decrees agreed upon by the Council of Ministers, to confer civil and military employments and award honours and distinctions;
g) to keep himself informed regarding affairs of State and, for this purpose, to preside over the meetings of the Council of Ministers whenever he deems opportune;
h) to exercise supreme command of the Armed Forces;
i) to exercise the right to grant pardons;
j) to exercise the High Patronage of the Royal Academies.
Art. 63 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 lays down that:
1. The King accredits ambassadors and other diplomatic representatives. Foreign representatives in Spain are accredited to him.
2. It is incumbent on the King to express the State's assent to the entering into of international commitments through treaties.
3. It is incumbent on the King, to declare war and to make peace.
From: http://www.casareal.es/ingles/laCorona/lacorona.html
Executive Branch
Executive power in Spain lies with the Council of Ministers (Spanish Consejo de Ministros). It is headed by the president of the government (Prime Minister) who is elected by the lower house of parliament (Congress of Deputies) having to win a majority of votes in the first round of voting and a plurality in the successive rounds of voting. The Prime Minister designates the rest of the members of the Council (usually from his own party) and directs the activities of the government as a whole. The Prime Minister can also designate various vice presidents (although it is not mandatory). There is also a Council of State that is the supreme consultative organ of the government.
Legislative branch
On the national level, Spain directly elects a legislature, the Cortes Generales (literally: General Courts), which consists of two chambers, the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados) and the Senate (Senado). The Congress and Senate serve concurrent terms that run for a maximum of four years.There are two essential differences between the two houses. The first is by way of electoral practice. Both are elected on a provincial basis. The number of seats in Congress is allocated in proportion to population. However this is only done after each province (with the exception of Ceuta and Melilla) has been given two members. The result of this is a slight over-representation for the smaller provinces. For example the smallest province, Soria, with an electorate of 78,531, elected 3 members of congress (or 1 for every 26,177 voters) while Madrid, the largest, with 4458540 voters, elected 35 members of congress (or 1 for every 127,387 voters). In the Senate the members are elected on a provincial basis [[http://www.electionresources.org/es/index_en.html#ASPECTS]]. The electoral system used is different with proportional party closed lists being used for Congress and the Senate elected by partial bloc voting. Additionally some senators are designated by the Autonomous legislatures. The second difference is in legislative power. With few exceptions, every law is approved with the votes of congress. The Senate can make changes or refuse laws but the Congress can ignore these amendments.
Political parties and elections
- The following election results include names of political parties. See for additional information about parties the List of political parties in Spain. An overview on elections and election results is included in Elections in Spain.
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'''Summary of the 14 March Congress of Deputies election results |- !style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=left valign=top|Parties and alliances !style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|Votes !style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|% !style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|Seats |- |align=left|Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (Partido Socialista Obrero Español) |align="right" |11,026,163 |align="right" |43.3 |align="right" |164 |- |align=left|People's Party (Partido Popular) |align="right" |9,763,144 |align="right" |38.3 |align="right" |148 |- |align=left|United Left (Izquierda Unida) |rowspan=3 valign=top align="right" |1,359,190 |rowspan=3 valign=top align="right" |5.3 |align="right" |2 |- |align=left|ICV-EUA
- Initiative for Catalonia Greens (Iniciativa per Catalunya Verds)
- United and Alternative Left (Esquerra Unida i Alternativa)
- Valencian Left (Esquerra Valenciana)
- United Left of the Land of Valencia (Esquerra Unida del País Valencià)
- The Greens of the Land of Valencia (Els Verds del País Valencià)
- Democratic Convergence of Catalonia (Convergència Democràtica de Catalunya)
- Democratic Union of Catalonia (Unió Democràtica de Catalunya)
|- |align=left|Republican Left of Catalonia (Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya) |align="right" |652,196 |align="right" |2.5 |align="right" |8
|- |align=left|Basque Nationalist Party (Partido Nacionalista Vasco/Euzko Alderdi Jeltzalea) |align="right" |420,980 |align="right" |1.6 |align="right" |7
|- |align=left|Canarian Coalition (Coalición Canaria) |align="right" |235,221 |align="right" |0.9 |align="right" |3
|- |align=left|Galician Nationalist Bloc (Bloque Nacionalista Galego)
- Union of the Galician People (Unión do Povo Galego)
- Nationalist Left (Esquerda Nacionalista)
- Galician Unity (Unidade Galega)
- Socialist Collective (Colectivo Socialista)
- Inzar
- Galician Nationalist Party-Galesguista Party (Partido Nacionalista Galego-Partido Galesguista)
|- |align=left|Andalucista Party (Partido Andalucista) |align="right" |181,868 |align="right" |0.7 |align="right" |-
|- |align=left|Aragonese Council (Chunta Aragonesista) |align="right" |94,252 |align="right" |0.4 |align="right" |1
|- |align=left|Basque Solidarity (Eusko Alkartasuna) |align="right" |80,905 |align="right" |0.3 |align="right" |1
|- |align=left|Navarra Yes (Nafarroa Bai}
- Basque Nationalist Party (Partido Nacionalista Vasco/Euzko Alderdi Jeltzalea)
- Basque Solidarity (Eusko Alkartasuna)
- Aralar
|- |align=left style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|Total (turnout %) |width="75" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"| |width="30" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"| |width="30" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|350 |- |colspan=4|Source: El País Online |}
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'''Summary of the 14 March Senate of Spain election results |- !style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=left valign=top|Parties and alliances !style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|Seats |- |align=left|Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (Partido Socialista Obrero Español) |align="right" |81 |- |align=left|Entesa Catalana de Progrés
- Republican Left of Catalonia (Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya)
- Socialists' Party of Catalonia (Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya)
- Initiative for Catalonia Greens (Iniciativa per Catalunya Verds)
- United and Alternative Left (Esquerra Unida i Alternativa)
- Democratic Convergence of Catalonia (Convergència Democràtica de Catalunya)
- Democratic Union of Catalonia (Unió Democràtica de Catalunya)
Judiciary
The Spanish Judiciary is exercised by professional judges and Magistrates and composed of different courts depending on The Jurisditial Order and what is to be Judged, the highest ranking court of the judicial structure in Spain is the Supreme Court. The role of the judiciary is governed by the General Council of the Judiciary Power whose Chairperson is also the Chairperson of the Supreme Court. See also Audiencia Nacional.Administrative divisions
Spain is divided into 17 autonomous communities (comunidades autónomas, singular - comunidad autónoma); Andalucía (Andalusia), Aragón, Asturias, Illes Balears (Balearic Islands), Canarias (Canary Islands), Cantabria, Castilla-La Mancha, Castilla y León, Catalunya (Catalonia), Comunidad Valenciana (Valencia), Extremadura, Galicia, La Rioja, Madrid, Murcia, Navarra (Navarre) and País Vasco (Basque Country).Note: There are five places of sovereignty near Morocco: Ceuta and Melilla are administered as autonomous cities, with more powers than cities but fewer than autonomous communities; Islas Chafarinas, Peñón de Alhucemas, and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera are under direct Spanish administrations.
Regional Level
The 1978 constitution authorized the creation of regional autonomous governments. By 1985, 17 nationalities and regions covering all of peninsular Spain, the Canaries and the Balearic Islands had passed a Charter of Autonomy. In 1979, the first autonomous elections were held in the Basque and Catalan regions, which have the strongest local traditions by virtue of their history and separate languages. Since then, autonomous governments have been created in the remainder of the 17 regions.The central government continues to devolve powers to the regional governments, which might eventually have full responsibility for health care and education, as well as other social programs. This process is limited by the Exclusive powers of the state in the article 149 of the Spanish Constitucion.
All Autonomous comunites are ruled by a government elcted by an unichameral legislature.
Spain is, at present, what is called a State of Autonomies, formally unitary but, in fact, functioning as a Federation of Autonomous Communities, each one with different powers (for instance, some have their own educational and health systems cordinated by the central government, co-official language and particular cultural identity) and laws. There are some differences within this system, since power has been devolved from the centre to the periphery asymmetrically, with some autonomous governments (especially those dominated by nationalist parties) seeking a more federalist;kind of relationship with Spain, now the Central Government is dealing with autonomous governments for the transfer of more autonomy. This novel system of asymmetrical devolution has been described as a coconstitutionalism and has similarities to the devolution process adopted by the United Kingdom since 1997. The terrorist group, ETA (Basque Homeland and Freedom), is attempting to achieve Basque independence through violent means, including bombings and killings of politicians, police, militaries and to scare off tourists (tourism is very important to the economy). They consider themselves a guerrilla organization. Although the Basque Autonomous government does not condone any kind of violence, their different approaches to the separatist movement are a source of tension between the central and Basque governments.
On 17 May 2005, all the parties in the Congress of Deputies, except the PP, passed the Central Government's motion of beginning peace talks with the ETA with no political concessions and only if it gives up all its weapons. PSOE, CiU, ERC, PNV, IU-ICV, CC and the mixed group —BNG, CHA, EA y NB— supported it with a total of 192 votes, while the 147 PP parliamentaris objected. ETA declared a "permanent cease-fire" that came into force on March 24, 2006.
On February 20th 2005, Spain became the first country to allow its people to vote on the European Union constitution that was signed in October 2004. The rules state that if any country rejects the constitution then the constitution will be declared void. Despite a very low participation (42%), the final result was very strongly in affirmation of the constitution, making Spain the first country to approve the constitution via referendum (Hungary, Lithuania and Slovenia approved it before Spain, but they did not hold referenda).
Provincial Level
In the comunities with more than one province the government is held by the diputación provincial (literally Provincial Deputation). With the eve of Autonomous Comunities deputations have lost much of its power.
The nationality debate
In order to understand the political forces and debates in Spain we have to consider two dimensions: the Right vs. Left dimension and the Nation State vs. Plurinational State dimension. The political parties' agendas and the individual citizens' opinions can only be understood when looked at on both dimensions. The Constitution of the Kingdom of Spain states that 1) it is a Nation and 2) that it is formed by Nationalities and Regions. This statement is a contradiction (since Nationality and Nation essentially mean the same thing in political theory), but it was an agreement that struck a balance between the political parties advocating the nation state and those advocating the plurinational state. The territorial organization of Spain into Autonomous Communities of Spain is the administrative realization of this constitutional balancing act.
Historically, parties advocating the Nation State claim that there is only one Nation and favour a state with a centralized government (with some degree of regional decentralization). Catalan, Basque and Galician political parties claim to represent their respective nations, different from the Spanish nation. These political parties share the belief that the Kingdom of Spain is a state formed by four nations, namely the Catalan nation, the Basque nation, the Galician nation and what might be called the Castillian-Spanish nation (for lack of better word, since they would call it simply Spain). Some of these parties often mention Switzerland as a model of Plurinational State shared by German, French, and Italian nationalities, while others advocate independence. Notice that these nations/nationalities are related to, but different from the current administrative borders of the Autonomous Communities of Spain.
The current situation can be understood as the sum of two historical failures: 1) the Nation State parties were unable to build a unified Nation State such as France, the model that the political and territorial organization of Spain has followed, while 2) the "national resistance" movements (specially Catalans and Basques) were also unable to break free from the Spanish state.
ETA
The Government of Spain has been involved in a long-running campaign against Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA), a rebel terrorist organization founded in 1959 and dedicated to promoting Basque independence. Initially ETA targeted primarily Spanish security forces, military personnel and Spanish Government officials. As the security forces and prominent politicians improved their own security, ETA increasingly became involved in killings of civilians, focused its attacks on the tourist seasons and attacked local government officials in the Basque Country. The group carried out numerous bombings against Spanish Government facilities and economic targets, including a car bomb assassination attempt on then-opposition leader Aznar in 1995, in which his armored car was destroyed but he was unhurt. The Spanish Government attributes over 800 deaths to ETA during its campaign of rebellion. In the years leading up to the permanent cease-fire, the government had more success in controlling ETA, due in part to increased security cooperation with French authorities.
In November 1999, ETA ended a cease-fire it declared in September 1998. From that time, ETA conducted a campaign of violence and has been blamed for the deaths of some 46 Spanish citizens and officials. Each attack was followed by massive anti-ETA demonstrations around the country, clearly demonstrating that the majority of Spaniards had no tolerance for continued ETA violence. This era came to an end on the 22nd of March, 2006, when ETA announced a permanent cease-fire, declaring that "Ending the conflict, here and now, is possible - this is the desire and the will of ETA." This cease-fire came into force on the 24th of March 2006. The statement has been regarded with some caution, given the fate of the organization's last cease-fire, but the general mood is now optimistic, and Prime Minister Zapatero trusts that the Government and ETA will be "joined in hope".
Spain also contends with a resistance group, commonly known as GRAPO. GRAPO is an urban terrorist group that seeks to overthrow the Spanish Government and establish a Marxist state. It opposes Spanish participation in NATO and U.S. presence in Spain and has a long history of assassinations, bombings, bank robberies and kidnappings mostly against Spanish interests during the 1970s and 1980s.
In a June 2000 communiqué following the explosions of two small devices in Barcelona, GRAPO claimed responsibility for several attacks throughout Spain during the past year. These attacks included two failed armored car robberies, one in which two security officers died, and four bombings of political party offices during the 1999-2000 election campaign. In 2002, Spanish authorities were successful in hampering the organization's activities through sweeping arrests, including some of the group's leadership.
GRAPO is not capable of maintaining the degree of operational capability that they once enjoyed. Most members of the groups are either in jail or abroad. Just as Spain has largely conformed to European norms in political and economic terms a quarter of a century after the death of Franco, so too has it progressed in the area of the safety of its citizens. The overall level of rebel activity is considerably less than in the past and the trend appears to be downward.
Islamic Terrorism
Al Qaeda has been known to operate cells in Spain, both logistically to support operations in other countries and with the potential to mount attacks within Spain itself. Spanish investigative services and the judicial system have aggressively sought to arrest and prosecute their members, with the most notable raid occurring in Barcelona in January 2003. In that effort, Spanish authorities arrested 16 suspected terrorists and seized explosives and other chemicals. Spain also actively cooperates with foreign governments to diminish the transnational terrorist threat.
Spain suffered a shocking terrorist attack, the March 11, 2004 Madrid attacks on its capital's commuter train network, killing 200. Al-Qaeda has been blamed for this attack. Some have attributed the fall of the Aznar government to this attack, which took place just four days before the 2004 elections. At first the public believed ETA was responsible for the bombing. When they learned Al-Qaeda was the true culprit, many voters lashed out at the media and Aznar's government, believing the two had colluded to deceive the public.
One of the first moves of Prime Minister Zapatero was to pull all Spanish troops out of Iraq, but at the same time he increased the amount of soldiers in Afghanistan, believing that nation represented a clear terrorist threat.
Political pressure groups
- Business and landowning interests;
- Free labour unions (authorized in April 1977, which meant the legalisation of previous clandestine unions and the creation of new ones). The most powerful unions are the Workers' Commissions or CC.OO. and the Socialist General Union of Workers or UGT. There are many others, in which workers unionise according to their trade or their ideology: Workers Syndical Union or USO, Solidarity of Basque Workers (ELA, Basque), Galician Inter-Unions Confederation (CIG, Galician).
- Catholic Church and Opus Dei campaign to influence governments' policies.
- Terrorism: Basque Fatherland and Liberty or ETA and the First of October Antifascist Resistance Group or GRAPO use terrorism to oppose the government.
International organization participation
Spain is member of AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECLAC, EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, LAIA (observer), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNTAET, UNU, UPU, WCL, WEU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, Zangger CommitteeReferences
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