In 1822, Brazil declared independence and the Portuguese colonialism focused on expanding its outposts in Africa into nation-sized territories to compete with other European powers there.
After World War II, Portugal began abandoning its colonies. The Portuguese overseas empire finally came to an end when Portugal handed Macau over to China in 1999.
The countries that we now know as Spain and Portugal spent the Middle Ages after 722 in an intermittent struggle called the Reconquista. This struggle pitted the northern Christian kingdoms against the Islamic kingdoms of the South and among themselves.
In an expedition to Tangier, undertaken in 1436 by King Duarte I (1433-1438), the Portuguese army was defeated, and could only escape destruction by surrendering as a hostage Prince Ferdinand, the king's youngest brother. By sea Prince Henry's captains continued their exploration of Africa and the Atlantic Ocean. In 1434Cape Bojador was crossed; in 1441 the first consignment of slaves was brought to Lisbon; and slave trading soon became one of the most profitable branches of Portuguese commerce. The Senegal was reached in 1445, Cape Verde was passed in the same year, and in 1446 Alvaro Fernandes pushed on almost as far as Sierra Leone.
Meanwhile colonization progressed in the Azores from 1439 and Madeira, where sugar and wine were now produced by settlers from Portugal, France and Flanders; above all, the gold brought home from Guinea stimulated the commercial energy of the Portuguese. It had become clear that, apart from their religious and scientific aspects, these voyages of discovery were highly profitable. Under Alphonso V (1443–1481), surnamed the African, the Gulf of Guinea was explored as far as Cape St Catherine, and three expeditions (1458, 1461, 1471) were sent to Morocco; in 1458 Alcácer Ceguer (El Qsar es Seghir, in Arabic) was taken and in 1471 Arzila (Asila) and Tangier were captured, all from the Moors.
Under John II (1481–1495) the fortress of São Jorge da Mina, the modern Elmina, in Ghana, was founded for the protection of the Guinea trading. Diogo Cão discovered the Congo in 1482 and reached Cape Cross in 1486.
By 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498Vasco da Gama reached India and established the first Portuguese outposts there. The discovery of the sea route around Africa to India and the rest of Asia opened enormous opportunities to trade for Portugal, which it aggressively pursued with the establishment of both trade outposts and fortified bases.
The Portuguese empire was guaranteed by the Treaty of Tordesillas of 6 June1494 with Spain, and Portugal established trading ports at far-flung locations like Goa, Malacca, the Maluku Islands, Macau, and Nagasaki. Guarding its trade from both European and Asian competitors, Portugal dominated not only the trade between Asia and Europe, but also much of the trade among different regions of Asia, such as India, Indonesia, China, and Japan. Jesuit missionaries, as the Spanish Francis Xavier, followed the Portuguese to spread Roman CatholicChristianity to Asia with mixed success.
Maximum extent of Portuguese colonial possessions in the XVI century.
In 1503, an expedition under Gonçalo Coelho discovered that the French were making incursions to the land what is today Brazil and looting it. John III, in 1530, organized the colonization of Brazil around 15 capitanias hereditárias ("hereditary captainships"), that were given to anyone who wanted to administer and explore them. On that same year there was a new expedition from Martim Afonso de Souza to patrol the entire coast, banish the French, and to create the first colonial towns: São Vicente at the coast, and São Paulo on the border of the altiplane. From the 15 original captainships, only two, Pernambuco and São Vicente, prospered. With permanent settlement came the establishment of the sugar caneindustry and its intensive labor demands which were met with Native American and later African slaves. Deeming the capitanias system ineffective, Tomé de Sousa, the first Governor-General was sent to Brazil in 1549. He built the capital of Brazil, Salvador at the Bay of All Saints. The first Jesuits arrived the same year.
In 1578, the Portuguese crusaders crossed into Morocco and were routed by Ahmed Mohammed of Fez, at Alcazarquivir (Field of the Three Kings). Sebastian of Portugal was almost certainly either killed in battle, or subsequently executed. This battle marked the end of Portugal's global ambitions.
As a final note, due to the creation of the Portuguese Empire, Europe was given a golden chance of development and of gaining soberany in the entire planet thanks to the portuguese efforts and their influence in all five continents in the XV and XVI century. As a consequence of the creation of the Portuguese Empire, The Roman Catholic Church influence first reached all five continents, the Potuguese were responsible for the weakning of the Islamic influence in both Africa and Asia by taking economical and military control of many of these territories and it trade routes or by establishing agreements with the local goverments. As a result the creation of several sea trade routes in which several products were traded and thus allowed these exotic products to finally reach Europe with much less problems thus allowing Europe's economical system and military to grow to the point that Europe was capable of expressing itself as the number one power house in the entire planet by the year of 1571 with the Battle of Lepanto, ironically, the portuguese influence in this battle was still considerable. Furthermore, the phenomenon known today as globalization was first started by the portuguese people, through the creation of several extensive trade routes through out the entire planet, in many aspects, Portugal was fulcral for the creation of the world we know today technologically, territorily, in terms of influence, economically and historically.
The Habsburg kings (1580-1640)
From 1580 to 1640, the throne of Portugal was held by the Habsburg kings of Spain resulting in the biggest colonial empire until then (see Iberian Union). In 1583Philip II of Spain as king of Portugal sent his combined Iberian fleet to clear the French traders from the Azores, decisively hanging his prisoners-of-war from the yardarms and contributing to the "Black Legend". The Azores were the last part of Portugal to resist Philip's reign over Portugal.
An anachronous map showing the Portuguese possessions ruled by the Habsburg kings (1580-1640) jointly all Spanish colonies (1492-1975), shown together simultaneously and at their maximum extent.
In the Americas, the Portuguese expansion continue beyond the west side by the meridian set by the Treaty of Tordesillas. Portugal was able to mount a military expedition, which defeated and expelled the French colonists of France Équinoxiale in 1615, less than four years after their arrival in the land.
1627 saw the collapse of the Castilian economy. The Dutch, who during the Twelve Years’ Truce had made their navy a priority, devastated Spanish maritime trade after the resumption of war, on which Spain was wholly dependent after the economic collapse. Even with a number of victories Spanish resources were now fully stretched across Europe and also at sea protecting their vital shipping against the greatly improved Dutch fleet. Spain's enemies, such as the Netherlands and England, coveted its overseas wealth, and in many cases found it easier to attack poorly-defended Portuguese outposts than Spanish ones. The Spanish were simply no longer able to cope with naval threats.
Thus the Dutch-Portuguese War came into being.
Between 1638 and 1640 the Netherlands came to control part of Brazil's Northeast region, with their capital in Recife. The Portuguese won a significant victory in the Second Battle of Guararapes in 1649. By 1654, the Netherlands had surrendered and returned control of all Brazilian land to the Portuguese.
In 1661 the Portuguese gave Bombay and Tangier to England as part of a dowry, and over the next hundred years the British would gradually become the dominant power in India as the Moghul Empire disintegrated, excluding other powers almost completely from trading there. Portugal was able to cling onto Goa and several minor bases through the remainder of the colonial period.
In 1755 Lisbon suffered a catastrophic earthquake, which together with a subsequent tsunami killed more than 100,000 people out of a population of 275,000. This sharply checked Portuguese colonial ambitions in the late 18th century.
Although initially less important, Brazil would become the main centre for Portuguese colonial ambitions, from which Portugal gathered resources such as gold, precious stones, sugar cane, coffee and other cash crops. Voluntary immigration from Europe and the slave trade from Africa increased its population immensely (today Brazil is the largest Portuguese-speaking country in the world).
Unlike the Spanish, the Portuguese did not divide its colonial territory in America. The captaincies there created were subdued to a centralized administration in Salvador which reported directly to the Crown in Lisbon.
In 1808, the French troops of Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Portugal, and Dom João, prince regent in place of his mother, Dona Maria I, ordered the transfer of the royal court to Brazil. Brazil was elevated to the condition of a Reino Unido de Portugal e Algarve (1815). There was also the election of Brazilian representatives to the Cortes Constitucionais Portuguesas (Portuguese Constitutional Courts).
Dom João, fleeing from Napoleon's army, moved the seat of government to Brazil in 1808. Brazil thereupon became a kingdom under Dom João VI. Although the royal family returned to Portugal in 1821, the interlude led to a growing desire for independence amongst Brazilians. In 1822, the son of Dom João VI, then prince-regent Dom Pedro I, proclaimed the independence, September 7, 1822, and was crowned emperor.
The African Empire (1822-1945)
By the height of European colonialism in the 19th century, Portugal had lost its territory in South America and all but a few bases in Asia. During this phase, Portuguese colonialism focused on expanding its outposts in Africa into nation-sized territories to compete with other European powers there. Portuguese territories eventually included the modern nations of Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Guinea-Bissau, Angola, and Mozambique.
Decline and Fall (1945-1999)
Monument to the Age of Discovery and Portuguese Navigators in Lisbon, Portugal
In the wake of World War II, other European nations began abandoning their colonies either voluntarily or involuntarily. Portugal refused to enter this process voluntarily, and was the last nation to retain its major colonies. In 1961, Goa and the rest of Portuguese India were occupied and annexed by India. In Portuguese Africa a decade-long war broke out with various resistance groups, in great part a consequence of the "proxy war" between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
In fact, it was the Cold War that destroyed the Portuguese empire, as the USA and USSR tried to increase their spheres of influence. The cost of the unsuccessful war against the various guerilla movements overseas eventually led to collapse of the Salazar regime in 1974 (the "Carnation Revolution"). One of the first acts of the democratic government which then came into power was to end the wars and negotiate Portuguese withdrawal from its African colonies. In both Mozambique and Angola a civil war promptly broke out, with incoming communist governments formed by the former rebels (and backed by the Soviet Union, Cuba, and other communist countries) fighting against insurgent groups supported by nations like Zaire, South Africa, and the United States.
East Timor also became independent at this time, but was promptly invaded by neighbouring Indonesia, which occupied it until 1999.
The Portuguese overseas empire finally came to an end when Portugal handed Macau over to China in 1999 under the terms of a negotiated agreement similar to the one under which the United Kingdom handed over Hong Kong.
Cabinda - protectorate (1883-1887); Congo district (1887-1921); intendancy subordinate to Maquela (1921-1922); dependency of Zaire district (1922-1930); Intendacy of Zaire and Cabinda (1930-1932); intendancy under Angola (1932-1934); dependancy under Angola (1934-1945); restored as District (1946-1975). Controlled by Frente Nacional para a Libertação de Angola (National Liberation Front of Angola) as part of independent Angola in 1975. Declared Cabinda a Republic in 1975, but not recognized by Portugal nor Angola.
Cabo Verde/Cape Verde - settlements (1462-1495); dominion of crown colonies (1495-1587); crown colony (1587-1951); overseas province (1951-1974); autonomous republic (1974-1975). Independence in 1975.
Ceuta - possession (1415-1640). Became Spanish colony in 1640.
Guiné Portuguesa/Portuguese Guinea - colony (1879-1951); overseas province (1951-1974). Unilateral independence declared in 1973, recognized by Portugal in 1974.
* Cacheu - captaincy (1640-1879). United with Bissau in 1879.
* Bissau - settlement under Cacheu (1687-1696); captaincy (1696-1707); abandoned (1707-1753); separate colony under Cape Verde (1753-1879). United with Cacheu in 1879.
Moçambique (Mozambique/Portuguese East Africa) - possession (1498-1501); subordinate to Goa (1501-1569); captaincy-general (1569-1609); colony subordinate to Goa (1609-1752); colony (1752-1951); overseas province (1951-1974); local administration (1974-1975). Independence in 1975.
Saint Laurent Islands (Madagascar) - fortified post (1498-1540)
São João Baptista de Ajudá - fort subordinate to Brazil (1721-1730); subordinate to São Tomé e Príncipe (1865-1869). Annexed by Dahomey in 1961.
São Tomé e Príncipe - crown colony (1753-1951); overseas province (1951-1971); local administration (1971-1975). Independence in 1975.
* São Tomé - Possession (1470-1485); colony (1485-1522); crown colony (1522-1641); administration under Dutch occupation (1641-1648). French occupation in 1648.
* Príncipe - colony (1500-1573). United with São Tomé in 1573.
Tangier - possession (1471-1662). Ceded to England in 1662.
Zanzibar - possession (1503-1698). Became part of Oman in 1698.
Azores - colonies (1427-1766); captaincy-general (1766-1831); overseas district (1831-1976). Made an autonomous region in 1976.
Brazil - possession known as Ilha de Santa Cruz, later Terra de Vera Cruz (1500-1530); colony (1530- 1714); vice-kingdom (1714-1815); kingdom under United Kingdom of Portugal (1815-1822), independence in 1822.
Cisplatina (Uruguay) - occupation (1808-1822). Captaincy in 1817 (of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and Algarves). Adhered as a province of the new Empire of Brazil in 1822. Became independent 1827, changing its name to Uruguay.
Macau/Macao - settlement (1553-1557), leased territory subordinated to Goa (1557-1844); overseas province (1844-1883); combined overseas province with Timor-Leste under Goa (1883-1951); overseas province (1951-1975); overseas territory (1975-1999). Returned to China (with sovereignty transferred to the People's Republic of China) as a special administrative region in 1999.
Socotra - possession (1506-1511). Became part of Mahri Sultanate of Qishn and Suqutra
Timor-Leste (East-Timor) - colony subordinate to Portuguese India (1642-1844); subordinate to Macau (1844-1896); separate colony (1896-1951); overseas territory (1951-1975); republic and unilateral indepedence proclaimed, annexed by Indonesia (1975-1999, UN recognition as Portuguese territory). UN administration from 1999 until independence in 2002.
[Dutch Portuguese Colonial History]Dutch Portuguese Colonial History: history of the Portuguese and the Dutch in Ceylon, India, Malacca, Bengal, Formosa, Africa, Brazil. Language Heritage, lists of remains, maps.
