Rebreather

Encyclopedia : R : RE : REB : Rebreather

Inspiration closed circuit diving rebreather

A rebreather is a type of breathing set that provides a breathing gas containing oxygen and recycles exhaled gas. This recycling reduces the volume of breathing gas used, making a rebreather a lightweight and compact breathing set for long durations in environments where humans cannot safely breathe from the atmosphere.

Contents

Basics

Rebreather technology is used in many environments:

Underwater - where it is sometimes known as "closed circuit scuba" as opposed to Aqua-Lung-type equipment, which is known as "open circuit scuba".
Mine rescue and in industry - where poisonous gases may be present or oxygen may be absent.
Space suits - outer space is, for all intents and purposes, a vacuum where there is no oxygen to support life.
Hospital anaesthesia breathing systems - to supply controlled proportions of gases to patients without letting anaesthetic gas get into the atmosphere that the staff breathe.
Submarines and hyperbaric oxygen therapy chambers - where the gas in the habitat must remain safe. Here the rebreather is big and is connected to the air in the habitat.

This article is mainly about diving rebreathers.

As a person breathes, the body consumes oxygen and makes carbon dioxide. A person with an open-circuit breathing set typically only uses about a quarter of the oxygen in the air that is breathed in. The rest is breathed out along with nitrogen and carbon dioxide.

With a rebreather, the exhaled gas is not discharged to waste. The rebreather recovers the exhaled oxygen for re-use. It absorbs the carbon dioxide, which otherwise would accumulate and cause carbon dioxide poisoning. It adds oxygen to replace what was consumed. Thus, the gas in the rebreather's circuit remains breathable and supports life processes. Nearly always, the oxygen comes from a gas cylinder, and the carbon dioxide is absorbed in a canister full of some absorbent chemical such as soda lime.

History of rebreathers

Also see Timeline of underwater technology.

Around 1620 in England, Cornelius Drebbel made an early oar-powered submarine. Records show that, to re-oxygenate the air inside it, he likely generated oxygen by heating saltpetre (sodium or potassium nitrate) in a metal pan to make it emit oxygen. That would turn the saltpetre into sodium or potassium oxide or hydroxide, which would tend to absorb carbon dioxide from the air around. That may explain how Drebbel's men were not affected by carbon dioxide build-up as much as would be expected. If so, he accidentally made a crude rebreather nearly three centuries before Fluess and Davis: see [this link].

The first certainly known closed circuit breathing device using stored oxygen and absorption of carbon dioxide by an absorbent (here caustic soda), was invented by Henry Fluess in 1879 to rescue mineworkers who were trapped by water.

The Davis Escape Set was the first rebreather which was practical for use and produced in quantity. It was designed about 1900 in Britain for escape from sunken submarines. Various industrial oxygen rebreathers (e.g. the Siebe Gorman Salvus and the Siebe Gorman Proto) were descended from it.

The first known systematic use of rebreathers for diving was by Italian sport spearfishers in the 1930s. This practice came to the attention of the Italian Navy, which developed its frogman unit which had a big effect in World War II.

US Navy rebreathers were developed by Dr. Christian J. Lambertsen in the early 1940s for underwater warfare. Dr. Lambertsen, who currently works at the University of Pennsylvania, is considered by the US Navy as "the father of the Frogmen."

Advantages of rebreather diving

The main advantage of the rebreather over other breathing equipment is the rebreather's economical use of gas. With "open circuit" scuba, the entire breath is expelled into the surrounding water when the diver exhales. Long or deep dives using open circuit equipment may not be feasible as there are limits to the number and weight of diving cylinders the diver can carry.

The economy of gas consumption is also useful when the gas mix being breathed contains expensive gases, such as the helium. In normal use only oxygen is consumed: small volumes of expensive inert gases can be reused for many dives.

Rebreathers produce far fewer bubbles and make less noise than Aqua-Lungs; this can conceal military divers and allow divers engaged in Marine biology and underwater photography to avoid alarming marine animals and therefore get closer to them.

One type of rebreather, the electronic fully-closed circuit rebreather, is able to minimise the proportion of inert gases in the breathing mix, and therefore minimise the decompression requirements of the diver, by maintaining a specific and relatively high oxygen partial pressure at all depths.

The breathing gas in a rebreather is warmer and more moist than the dry and cold gas from open circuit equipment making it more comfortable to breathe on long dives and causing less dehydration in the diver.

Parts of a diving rebreather

A simple naval-type diving oxygen rebreather with the parts labelled

Back of an Inspiration Diving Rebreather, with its casing opened

The loop

Although there are several design variations of diving rebreather, all types have a gas-tight loop that the diver inhales from and exhales into. The loop consists of components sealed together. The diver breathes through a mouthpiece or a fullface mask (or with industrial breathing sets, sometimes a mouth-and-nose mask). This is connected to one or more tubes bringing inhaled gas and exhaled gas between the diver and a counterlung or breathing bag. This holds gas when it is not in the diver's lungs. The loop also includes a scrubber containing carbon dioxide absorbent to remove from the loop the carbon dioxide exhaled by the diver. Attached to the loop there will be at least one valve allowing injection of gases, such as oxygen and perhaps a diluting gas, into the loop. There may be valves allowing venting of gas from the loop.

Most modern rebreathers have a twin hose mouthpiece or breathing mask where the direction of flow of gas through the loop is controlled by one-way valves. Some have a single pendulum hose, where the inhaled and exhaled gas passes through the same tube in opposite directions. The mouthpiece often has a valve letting the diver take the mouthpiece from the mouth while underwater or floating on the surface without water getting into the loop. Many rebreathers have "water traps" in the counterlungs, to stop large volumes of water from entering the loop if the diver removes the mouthpiece underwater without closing the valve, or if the diver's lips get slack letting water leak in.

Carbon dioxide scrubber

The active ingredient of the scrubber is often soda lime. All gas moving through the loop must pass through the absorbent so its carbon dioxide is removed.

At present, there is no effective technology for detecting the end of the life of the scrubber or a dangerous increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide causing carbon dioxide poisoning. The diver must monitor the exposure of the scrubber and replace it when necessary. Carbon dioxide gas sensors exist, but they are not sensitive enough to be used in a rebreather - the scrubber "break through" occurs quite suddenly and the diver shows symptoms before the sensor indicates a dangerous build-up of carbon dioxide. A rebreather absorbent called "Protosorb" supplied by Siebe Gorman had a red dye, which was said to go white when the absorbent was exhausted. Even if a sensitive carbon dioxide sensor is developed, it may not be useful as the primary tool for monitoring scrubber life when underwater, because mixed gas rebreathers allow very long dives where long decompression stops may be needed: knowing that the rebreather will begin to deliver a poisonous breathing gas in five minutes may not be useful to a diver needing to carry out an hour or more of decompression stops.

Among British naval rebreather divers, this type of carbon dioxide poisoning was called shallow water blackout.

A hazard with diving with early rebreathers was "caustic cocktail" caused by water entering the loop and dissolving absorbent; but many modern diving rebreather absorbents are designed not to produce "cocktail" if they get wet.

In deep diving with a nitrox or other gas-mixture rebreather, the scrubber needs to be bigger than is needed for a shallow-water oxygen rebreather, because with increasing depth there are more diluent molecules which tend to act as "clutter" and hinder the carbon dioxide from reaching the absorbent.

Controlling the mix

A basic need with a rebreather is to keep the amount of oxygen in the mix, or more technically known as the partial pressure of oxygen or ppO₂, from getting too low (causing anoxia or hypoxia) or too high (causing oxygen toxicity).

With humans, the urge to breathe is caused by a build-up of carbon dioxide rather than lack of oxygen. When using a rebreather, carbon dioxide is removed from the breathing gas by the scrubber, suppressing this natural warning. The resulting serious hypoxia causes sudden blackout with little or no warning. This makes hypoxia a deadly problem for rebreather divers.

In many rebreathers the diver can control the gas mix and volume in the loop manually by injecting each of the different available gases to the loop and by venting the loop. The loop often has a pressure relief valve preventing the "hamster cheek" effect on the diver caused by over-pressure of the loop.

In some early rebreathers the diver had to manually open and close the valve to the oxygen cylinder to refill the counter-lung each time. In others the oxygen flow is kept constant by a pressure-reducing flow valve like the valves on blowtorch cylinders; the set also has a manual on/off valve called a bypass. In some modern rebreathers, the pressure in the breathing bag controls the oxygen flow like the demand valve in open-circuit scuba; for example, trying to breathe in from an empty bag makes the cylinder release more gas. Most modern closed-circuit rebreathers have electro-galvanic fuel cell sensors and onboard electronics, which monitor the ppO₂, injecting more oxygen if necessary or issuing an audible warning to the diver if the ppO₂ reaches dangerously high or low levels.

Counterlung

The position of the breathing bag, on the chest, over the shoulders, or on the back, has an effect on the ease of breathing. The design of the rebreather also affects the swimming diver's streamlining and thus ease of swimming.

A rebreather whose counterlung is rubber and not in an enclosed casing, should be sheltered from sunlight when not in use, to prevent the rubber from perishing.

Bailout

Some rebreather sets include a bailout regulator allowing the user to bail onto open-circuit using his diluent tank. This lets the diver ascend on a separate gas supply. The majority of rebreather trainers teach students to also carry an open-circuit scuba cylinder and regulator as a separate bailout source. Bailout is a key area of discussion for rebreather diving, as when the depth starts to increase the bailout strategy becomes a crucial part of planning particularly for Technical diving.

Main diving rebreather design variants

Oxygen rebreather

This is the oldest type of rebreather and was commonly used by navies from the early twentieth century. The only gas that it supplies is oxygen. As pure oxygen is toxic when inhaled at pressure, oxygen rebreathers are limited to a depth of 6 meters (20 feet); some say 9 meters (30 feet). Oxygen rebreathers are also sometimes used when decompressing from a deep open-circuit dive, as breathing pure oxygen makes the nitrogen diffuse out of the blood more rapidly.

In some rebreathers, e.g. the Siebe Gorman Salvus, the oxygen cylinder has two first stages in parallel. One is constant flow; the other is a plain on-off valve called a bypass; both feed into the same exit pipe which feeds the breathing bag. In the Salvus there is no second stage and the gas is turned on and off at the cylinder. Some simple oxygen rebreathers had no constant-flow valve, but only the bypass, and the diver had to operate the valve at intervals to refill the breathing bag as he used the oxygen.

Semi-closed circuit rebreather

Military and recreational divers use these because they provide good underwater duration with fairly simple and cheap equipment. Semi-closed circuit equipment generally supplies one breathing gas such as air, nitrox or trimix. The gas is injected at a constant rate. Excess gas is constantly vented from the loop in small volumes.

The diver must fill the cylinders with gas mix that has a maximum operating depth that is safe for the depth of the dive being planned. As the amount of oxygen required by the diver increases with work rate, the oxygen injection rate must be carefully chosen and controlled to prevent either oxygen toxicity or unconsciousness in the diver due to hypoxia.

Fully closed circuit rebreather

Military, photographic and recreational divers use these because they allow long dives and produce no bubbles. Closed circuit rebreathers generally supply two breathing gases to the loop: one is pure oxygen and the other is a diluent or diluting gas such as air, nitrox or trimix.

The major task of the fully closed circuit rebreather is to control the oxygen concentration, known as the oxygen partial pressure, in the loop and to warn the diver if it is becoming dangerously low or high. The concentration of oxygen in the loop depends on two factors: depth and the proportion of oxygen in the mix. Too low a concentration of oxygen results in hypoxia leading to sudden unconsciousness and ultimately death when the oxygen is exhausted. Too high a concentration of oxygen results in oxygen toxicity, a condition causing convulsions, which when they occur underwater can lead to drowning.

In fully automatic closed-circuit systems, a mechanism injects oxygen into the loop when it detects that the partial pressure of oxygen in the loop has fallen below the required level. Often this mechanism is electrical and relies on oxygen sensitive electro-galvanic fuel cells called ppO₂ meters to measure the concentration of oxygen in the loop.

The diver may be able to manually control the mixture by adding diluent gas or oxygen. Adding diluent can prevent the loop's gas mixture becoming too oxygen rich. Manually adding oxygen is risky as additional small volumes of oxygen in the loop can easily raise the partial pressure of oxygen to dangerous levels.

Rebreathers whose absorbent releases oxygen

There have been a few rebreather designs (e.g. the Oxylite) which had an absorbent canister filled with potassium superoxide, which gives off oxygen as it absorbs carbon dioxide: 4KO₂ + 2CO₂ = 2K₂CO₃ + 3O₂; it had a very small oxygen cylinder to fill the loop at the start of the dive. This system is dangerous because of the explosively hot reaction that happens if water gets on the potassium superoxide. The Russian IDA71 military and naval rebreather was designed to be run in this mode or as an ordinary rebreather.

Cryogenic rebreather

There have been plans for a "cryogenic rebreather". It has a tank of liquid oxygen and no absorbent canister. The carbon dioxide is frozen out in a "snow box" by the cold produced as the liquid oxygen expands to gas as the oxygen is used and is replaced from the oxygen tank.

Such a rebreather called the S-1000 was built around or soon after 1960 by Sub-Marine Systems Corporation. It had a duration of 6 hours and a maximum dive depth of 200 meters of salt water. Its ppO₂ could be set to anything from 0.2 bar to 2 bar without electronics, by controlling the temperature of the liquid oxygen, thus controlling the equilibrium pressure of oxygen gas above the liquid. The diluent could be either liquid nitrogen or helium depending on the depth of the dive. The set could freeze out 230 grams of carbon dioxide per hour from the loop, corresponding to an oxygen consumption of 2 liters per minute. If oxygen was consumed faster (high workload), a regular scrubber was needed. See Fischel H., Closed circuit cryogenic SCUBA, "Equipment for the working diver" 1970 symposium, Washington, DC, USA. Marine Technology Society 1970:229-244.

See also Cushman, L., Cryogenic Rebreather, Skin Diver magazine, June 1969, and reprinted in Aqua Corps magazine, N7, 28, 79.

There are articles on the web about a cryogenic rebreather called Titanic II. These articles are a hoax; some of them include unrealistic technology.

Other designs

In the Siebe Gorman Proto (see above) the absorbent was loose in the bottom of the breathing bag and not in a canister.

Risks and precautions with rebreather diving

Many diver training organizations teach the "diluent flush" technique as a safe way to restore the mix in the loop to a level of oxygen that is neither too high nor too low. It only works when partial pressure of oxygen in the diluent alone would not cause hypoxia or hyperoxia, such as when using a normoxic diluent and observing the diluent's maximum operating depth. The technique involves simultaneously venting the loop and injecting diluent. This flushes out the old mix and replaces it with a known proportion of oxygen from the diluent.

Divers using oxygen rebreathers are advised to flush the system when they start the dive, to get surplus nitrogen out of the system.

In addition to the other diving disorders suffered by divers, rebreather divers are also more susceptible to:

Sudden blackout due to hypoxia caused by too low a partial pressure of oxygen in the loop. A particular problem when using a closed circuit rebreather is the drop in ambient pressure caused by the ascent phase of the dive, which reduces the partial pressure of oxygen to hypoxic levels leading to what is sometimes called deep water blackout.
Seizures due to oxygen toxicity caused by too high a partial pressure of oxygen in the loop. This can be caused by the rise in ambient pressure caused by the descent phase of the dive, which raises the partial pressure of oxygen to hyperoxic levels. In fully closed circuit equipment, aging oxygen sensors may become "current limited" and fail to measure high partial pressures of oxygen resulting in dangerously high oxygen levels.
Disorientation, panic, headache, and hyperventilation due to excess of carbon dioxide caused by incorrect configuration, failure or inefficiency of the scrubber. The scrubber must be configured so that no exhaled gas can bypass it; it must be packed and sealed correctly. Another problem is the diver producing carbon dioxide faster than the absorbent can handle, for example, during hard work or fast swimming. The solution to this is to slow down and let the absorbent catch up. The scrubber efficiency may be reduced at depth where the increased concentration of other gas molecules, due to pressure, stops all the carbon dioxide molecules reaching the active ingredient of the scrubber.
The rebreather diver must keep breathing in and out all the time, to keep the exhaled gas flowing over the carbon dioxide absorbent, so the absorbent can work all the time. Divers need to lose any air conservation habits that may have been developed while diving with open-circuit scuba. In closed circuit rebreathers, this also has the advantage of mixing the gases preventing oxygen-rich and oxygen-lean spaces developing within the loop, which may give inaccurate readings to the oxygen control system.
"Caustic cocktail" in the loop if water comes into contact with the soda lime used in the carbon dioxide scrubber. The diver is normally alerted to this by a chalky taste in the mouth. A safe response is to bail out to "open circuit" and rinse the mouth out.

When compared with Aqua-Lungs, rebreathers have some disadvantages including expense, complexity of operation and maintenance and fewer failsafes. A malfunctioning rebreather can supply a gas mixture which cannot sustain life. Various rebreathers try to solve these problems by montoring the system with electronics, sensors and alarm systems. Many very competent divers have died using rebreathers in accidents, which are often put down to operator error. Rebreathers are generally considered safer in extreme conditions such as deep dives (75m = 246 feet or more) or overhead environments, as they reduce the risk of running out of breathable gas.

The bailout requirement of rebreather diving can sometimes also require a rebreather diver to carry almost as much bulk of cylinders as an open-circuit diver so the diver can complete the necessary decompression stops if the rebreather fails completely. Some rebreather divers prefer not to carry enough bailout for a safe ascent breathing open circuit, but instead rely on the rebreather, believing that an irrecoverable rebreather failure is very unlikely. This practice is known as alpinism or alpinist diving and is generally maligned due to the perceived extremely high risk of death if the rebreather fails.

Innovations in recreational diving rebreather technology

Over the past ten or fifteen years rebreather technology has advanced considerably often driven by the growing market in recreational diving equipment. Innovations include:

The electronic, fully-closed circuit rebreather itself - use of elecronics and electro-galvanic fuel cells to monitor oxygen concentration within the loop and maintain a certain partial pressure of oxygen
Automatic diluent valves - these inject diluent gas into the loop when the loop pressure falls below the limit at which the diver can comfortably breathe. [link]
Dive/surface valves or bailout valves - a device in the mouthpiece on the loop which connects to a bailout demand valve and can be switched to provide gas from either the loop or the demand valve without the diver taking the mouthpiece from his or her mouth. An important safety device when carbon dioxide poisoning occurs. [link]
Integrated decompression computers - these allow divers to take advantage of the decompression benefits provided by the ideal mix in the loop of a fully closed circuit rebreather. By monitoring the oxygen content of the mix they can work out the inert gas content and generate a schedule of decompression stops. [link]
Carbon dioxide scrubber life monitoring systems - temperature sensors monitor the progress of the reaction of the soda lime and provide an indication of when the scrubber will be exhausted. [link]

Some makes of rebreather

The Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus was the first or nearly the first rebreather to be made in quantity.
The "Universal" rebreather was a long-dive derivative of the Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus, intended to be used with the Sladen Suit, which see for more information about it.
Russian IDA71 military and naval rebreather
Siebe Gorman CDBA: see there also for CDMBA, SCBA, SCMBA, UBA
Siebe Gorman Salvus
The Blackett's Aerophor is a nitrox semi-closed-circuit rebreather with liquid gas storage made in England from 1910 onwards for use in mine rescue and other industrial uses.
SDBA is a type of frogman's oxygen rebreather. It has a nitrox variant called ONBA.
FROGS (= Full Range Oxygen Gas System) is the make of frogman's oxygen rebreather which has been used in France since 15 October 2002: see [this link (in French)]: image at [this link]: it is made by the diving gear makers [Aqualung]: see [this link] for more information.
Sport diving mixture rebreathers made by [Ambient Pressure Diving]:-
*[Inspiration]: also see http://www.therebreathersite.nl/menu_inspiration_info.htm
*[Evolution]

External links

Diving rebreather manufacturers

[Ambient Pressure Diving] - maker of the Inspiration and Evolution rebreathers
Cis-Lunar - made closed-circuit automatic rebreathers, now operated by Juergensen Marine.
[Divematics] - maker of the Shadow Pac II rebreather
[Divex Ltd] - manufacturer of several military semi-closed and closed circuit rebreathers.
[Drager] - maker of various semi-closed circuit rebreathers
[Halcyon] - maker of a semi-closed circuit rebreather
[Jetsam] - maker of the KISS rebreather
[Megalodon & Mini Meg] - The Megalodon Expedition class rebreather
[Rebreather US] - The Juergensen Marine Hammerhead Electronic System
[Rebreathers Australia] - maker of the Abyss and Stingray closed circuit rebreathers
[Siebe Gorman], see also Siebe Gorman. Important in diving history, but now closed down.
[Steam Machines] - Prism rebreathers
[Submatix Rebreather] - manufacturer of the Submatix SCR 100 ST

Other information sources

[Rebreather Scuba Diving] Rebreather world contains further information on rebreathers. The site includes a Rebreather library and Rebreather Forums, and Rebreather Trips, Vacations, and Holidays.
[Richard Pyle's rebreather page]
[Rebreather Forums] Largest Rebreather Forums on the net
[The Rebreather Site] Long list of types of rebreathers (including nitrox) at "database on oxygen rebreathers".
[Diver Dave's site]. It has many detailed photographs of rebreathers and their components.
[Karl Kramer's site] (more history)
[British Sub-Aqua Club - BSAC Technical Diving Resource Centre]
[Shallow Water Blackout]
[Some photos of various Soviet-Russian rebreathers] (text in Russian)
[100 Dollar Rebreather] - Rebreather built from a hot water bottle
[Teknosofen homepage] - General rebreather theory and rebreather tear-downs

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