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Richard Nixon

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Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9 1913 – April 22 1994) was the 37th President of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974. He is the only American President to have resigned from office. His resignation came in the face of imminent impeachment related to the Watergate first break-in and the subsequent Watergate scandal. He was also the 36th Vice President (1953–1961) serving under Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon is the only American to have been elected twice to the Vice Presidency and twice to the Presidency, and is given credit for redefining the office of Vice President, making it for the first time a high visibility platform and base for a presidential candidacy.

Nixon is noted for his diplomatic accomplishments in foreign policy, especially Détente with the Soviet Union and China, and ending the Vietnam War. He is also noted for his middle-of-the-road domestic policy that combined conservative rhetoric and, in many cases, liberal action, as in his environmental policy.

As President, Nixon imposed wage and price controls, indexed Social Security for inflation, and created Supplemental Security Income (SSI). The number of pages added to the Federal Register each year doubled under Nixon. He advocated gun control and eradicated the last remnants of the gold standard. Nixon created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and implemented the Philadelphia Plan, the first significant federal affirmative action program. As a party leader, Nixon helped build the Republican Party (GOP), but he ran his 1972 campaign separately from the party, which perhaps helped the GOP escape some of the damage from Watergate.

Contents

Early years

Richard Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California to Francis A. Nixon and Hannah Milhous Nixon in a house his father built from a kit purchased from Sears, Roebuck. He was raised by his mother as an evangelical Quaker. His upbringing is said to have been marked by conservative evangelical Quaker observances such as refraining from drinking, dancing and swearing. His father (known as Frank) was a former member of the Methodist Protestant Church who had sincerely converted to Quakerism but never fully absorbed its spirit, retaining instead a volatile temper. Richard Nixon's great-grandfather George Nixon III had been killed at the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War while serving in the 73rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry.

Nixon's parents had five children:

The young Lt Commander Richard Nixon of the US Navy 1945
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The young Lt Commander Richard Nixon of the US Navy 1945

Nixon attended Fullerton High School from 1926-28 and Whittier High School from 1928-30. He graduated first in his class; showing a penchant for Shakespeare and Latin. He won a full tuition scholarship from Harvard; but since it did not cover living expenses, Nixon's family was unable to afford to send him away to college. Nixon attended Whittier College, a local Quaker school where he co-founded the Orthogonian Society, a fraternity that competed with the already established Franklin Society. Nixon was elected student body president. A lifelong football buff, Nixon practiced with the team assiduously but spent most of his time on the bench. In 1934, he graduated second in his class from Whittier and went on to Duke University School of Law, where he received a full scholarship.

In 1937 Nixon returned to California, passed the bar exam, and began working in the small-town law office of a family friend in nearby La Mirada. The work was mostly routine, and Nixon generally found it to be dull, although he was entirely competent. He later wrote that family law cases caused him particular discomfort, since his reticent Quaker upbringing was severely at odds with the idea of discussing intimate marital details with strangers.

It was during this period that he met his wife Pat, a high school teacher; they were married on June 21, 1940. They had two daughters, Tricia and Julie.

During World War II, Nixon served as an officer in the Navy. He received his training at Quonset Point, Rhode Island, and Ottumwa, Iowa, before serving in the supply corps in the South Pacific. There he was known as "Nick" and for his prowess in poker, banking a large sum that helped finance his first campaign for Congress.

House and Senate: 1946-1952

Nixon was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1946, defeating Democratic incumbent Jerry Voorhis for California's 12th congressional district. Nixon's campaign alleged that his opponent's CIO PAC support showed that Voorhis was collaborating with Communist-controlled labor unions.

Nixon's first major breakthrough came in his two terms in Congress, where his dogged investigation on the House Un-American Activities Committee, broke the impasse of the Alger Hiss spy case in 1948. Nixon believed Whittaker Chambers, who alleged that Hiss, a high State Department official, was a Soviet spy. Nixon discovered that Chambers had saved incriminating documents (hiding them in a pumpkin) which were alleged both to be accessible only by Hiss, and to be typed on Hiss's personal typewriter. The discovery that Hiss, who had been a senior FDR advisor, could have been a Soviet spy, thrust Nixon into the public eye and made him the hero to FDR's many enemies. In reality, Nixon's moderate position on domestic economic policies, and his support for internationalism put him in the left wing of the Republican party, often closer to liberal Democrats than to conservative Republicans. However conservatives ignored that because of his success in attacking Communist sympathizers. (Democrats too ignored his basic support for New Deal foreign and domestic policies.)

In 1950, Nixon was elected to the United States Senate over Congresswoman Helen Gahagan Douglas. Alluding to her supposed Communist or fellow traveler sympathies, Nixon called her "the Pink Lady" and said she was "pink right down to her underwear." Gahagan, meanwhile, gave Nixon one of the most enduring nicknames in politics: "Tricky Dick."

Vice Presidency

right
Order: 36th Vice President
Term of Office: January 20 1953 – January 20 1961
Preceded by: Alben Barkley
Succeeded by: Lyndon B. Johnson
President: Dwight D. Eisenhower
Political party: Republican

In 1952, he was elected Vice President on Dwight D. Eisenhower's ticket, although he was only 39 years old.

During the campaign, Nixon was accused by nameless sources of misappropriating money out of a business funding fund for personal use. He went on TV and defended himself in an emotional speech, where he provided an independent third-party review of the fund's accounting along with a personal summary of his finances, which he cited as exonerating him from wrongdoing, and he charged that the Democratic Presidential candidate, Adlai Stevenson, also had a slush fund. This speech would, however, become better known for its rhetoric, such as when he stated that his wife Pat did not wear mink, but rather "a respectable Republican cloth coat", and that although he had been given a cocker spaniel named "Checkers" in addition to his other campaign contributions, he was not going to give it back because his daughters loved it. As a result, this speech became known as the "Checkers speech", and it resulted in a flood of support, prompting Eisenhower to keep Nixon on the ticket.

Nixon reinvented the office of Vice President. Although he had no formal power, he had the attention of the media and the Republican party. He demonstrated for the first time that the office could be a springboard to the White House; most Vice Presidents since have followed his lead and sought the presidency (exceptions being Nelson Rockefeller and Spiro Agnew). Nixon was the first Vice President to actually step in to temporarily run the government. He did so three times when Eisenhower was ill: on the occasions of Eisenhower's heart attack on September 24 1955; his ileitis in June 1956; and his stroke on November 25 1957. His quick thinking was on display on July 24 1959, at the opening of the American National Exhibition in Moscow where he and Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev had an impromptu "kitchen debate" about the merits of capitalism versus communism.

1960 election and post-Vice Presidency

Vice President Nixon, right, and Senator John F. Kennedy during their TV debate prior to the 1960 presidential election
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Vice President Nixon, right, and Senator John F. Kennedy during their TV debate prior to the 1960 presidential election

In 1960, he ran for President on his own but lost to John F. Kennedy. The race was very close all year long. [Kennedy-Nixon Presidential Debates, 1960] - Erika Tyner Allen, Museum of Broadcast Communications, accessed April 4 2006 Nixon campaigned on his experience, but Kennedy said it was time for new blood and suggested the Eisenhower-Nixon administration had been soft on defense. It also did not help that when asked of major policy decisions that Nixon had helped make, Eisenhower responded: "Give me a week and I might think of one". This hurt his standing early in the campaign, showing that he did not necessarily have the experience to be President or Eisenhower's firm backing. It is also believed that Nixon's chances were further damaged by the televised debates. While Nixon was visibly sweaty and even stumbled from nervousness, Kennedy looked handsome and very confident to TV viewers.

In 1962, Nixon lost a race for Governor of California. In his concession speech, Nixon accused the media of favoring his opponent Pat Brown and stated that it was his "last press conference" and that "You don't have Dick Nixon to kick around any more".

1968 Election

Nixon moved to New York City where he became a well-paid senior partner in a leading law firm, Nixon Mudge Rose Guthrie & Alexander. During the 1966 Congressional elections, he stumped the country in support of Republican candidates, rebuilding his base in the party. In the election of 1968, he completed a remarkable political comeback by taking the nomination. Nixon appealed to what he called the "silent majority" of socially conservative Americans who disliked the "hippie" counterculture and anti-war demonstrators. Nixon promised "peace with honor," and without claiming to be able to win the war, Nixon claimed that "new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the Pacific". He did not explain in detail his plans to end the war in Vietnam, leading Democratic nominee Hubert H. Humphrey and the media to allege that he must have some "secret plan." Nixon did not use the phrase, and stated in his memoirs that he had no such plan. He defeated Humphrey and independent candidate George Wallace to become the 37th President of the United States.

Presidency 1969-1974

Foreign policies

Once in office, he proposed the Nixon Doctrine to establish a strategy of turning over the fighting of the war to the Vietnamese. In July 1969, he visited South Vietnam, and met with President Nguyen Van Thieu and with U.S. military commanders. American involvement in the war declined steadily until all American troops were gone in 1973. After the withdrawal of U.S. troops, fighting was left to the South Vietnamese army, which was well supplied with modern arms, but whose fighting capability was in question because of inadequate funding, low morale, and corruption. The lack of funding was primarily because of large funding cutbacks by the U.S. Congress.

Nixon ordered secret bombing campaigns in Cambodia in March 1969 (code-named Operation Menu) to destroy what was believed to be the headquarters of the National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam, and later escalated the conflict with secretly bombing Laos before Congress cut the funding for the conflict in Vietnam.

President Nixon greets released POW (and future Republican Senator) Navy officer John McCain (on crutches) after years of imprisonment in North Vietnam, 1973
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President Nixon greets released POW (and future Republican Senator) Navy officer John McCain (on crutches) after years of imprisonment in North Vietnam, 1973

In ordering the bombings, Nixon realized he would be extending an unpopular war as well as breaching Cambodia's stated neutrality. During deliberations over Nixon's impeachment, his unorthodox use of executive powers in ordering the bombings was considered as an article of impeachment, but the charge was dropped as not a violation of Constitutional powers.

On July 20 1969, Nixon addressed Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin live via radio during their historic moonwalk. Nixon also made the world's longest distance phone call to Neil Armstrong on the moon. On January 5, 1972, Nixon approved the development of the Space Shuttle program, a decision that profoundly influenced U.S. efforts to explore and develop space for several decades thereafter.

President Nixon greets Communist Party of China Chairman Mao (left) in a visit to China, 1972
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President Nixon greets Communist Party of China Chairman Mao (left) in a visit to China, 1972

Relations between the Western and Eastern power blocs changed dramatically in the early 70s. In 1960, the People's Republic of China ended the alliance with its biggest ally, the Soviet Union, in the Sino-Soviet Split. As tensions between the two communist nations reached its peak in 1969 and 1970, Nixon decided to use their conflict to shift the balance of power towards the West in the Cold War. In what later would be known as the "China Card", Nixon deliberately improved relations with China in order to gain a strategic advantage over the Soviet Union, but giving Moscow a chance to improve relations so as not to be squeezed by a US-China detente. In 1971, a move was made to improve relations when China invited an American table tennis team to China; hence the term "Ping Pong Diplomacy". In October 1971, The People's Republic of China entered the United Nations. Nixon sent Henry Kissinger on a secret mission to China in July 1971, and in 1972 Nixon stunned the world by himself going to China to negotiate directly with Mao. Fearing the possibility of a Sino-American alliance, the Soviet Union yielded to American pressure for détente. The first Strategic Arms Limitation Talks were finally concluded the same year with the SALT I treaty. To win American friendship both China and the Soviet Union cut back on their support for North Vietnam. John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment 1982 p 294, 299; Ang Cheng Guan, Ending the Vietnam War: The Vietnamese Communists' Perspective (2003) pp 61, 69, 77-79. Nixon later explained his strategy:

I had long believed that an indispensable element of any successful peace initiative in Vietnam was to enlist, if possible, the help of the Soviets and the Chinese. Though rapprochement with China and détente with the Soviet Union were ends in themselves, I also considered them possible means to hasten the end of the war. At worst, Hanoi was bound to feel less confident if Washington was dealing with Moscow and Peking. At best, if the two major Communist powers decided that they had bigger fish to fry, Hanoi would be pressured into negotiating a settlement we could accept. Nixon, No More Vietnams (1987), pp 105–6.
Nixon was vocal in supporting General Yahya Khan of Pakistan despite escalating violence in East Pakistan during the Indo-Pakistan War. Subsequently declassified documents reveal the extent of support offered by Nixon to the dictator notwithstanding the widespread human rights violations. [The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971] - Sajit Gandhi, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 79, December 16 2002

Nixon supported the wave of military "golpes de Estado" in South America. Through Henry Kissinger, he gave at least an implicit help to Augusto Pinochet's coup, in 1973, and then helped set up operation Condor (as evidenced by CIA documents released in 2000, following Pinochet's arrest in 1998). A U.S. intelligence base in Panama Canal coordinated the acts of the various Latin American secret services, such as DINA and Dirección de los Servicios de Inteligencia y Prevención.

Domestic policies

He established the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) on December 2, 1970.

On January 2, 1974, Nixon signed a bill that lowered the maximum U.S. speed limit to 55 miles per hour (90 km/h) in order to conserve gasoline during the 1973 energy crisis. This law remained in effect until 1995.

Major initiatives

Mobutu Sese Seko and Richard Nixon at Washington D.C. 1973
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Mobutu Sese Seko and Richard Nixon at Washington D.C. 1973

In 1972, Nixon was re-elected in one of the biggest landslide election victories in U.S. political history, defeating George McGovern and garnering over 60% of the popular vote. He carried 49 of the 50 states, losing only in Massachusetts.

On April 3, 1974, Nixon announced he would pay $432,787.13 in back taxes plus interest after a Congressional committee reported that he had inadvertently underpaid his 1969 and 1972 taxes.

In light of the near certainty of both his impeachment (due to the Watergate scandal) by the House of Representatives and his conviction by the Senate, Nixon resigned on August 9 1974.

Administration and Cabinet

The Nixon Administration was comprised of an impressive array of talent both in the cabinet and in the White House staff. Among the many people who came to Washington to serve in the administration were one future President (George H. W. Bush); a Vice President (Dick Cheney); six secretaries of state (Henry Kissinger, Alexander Haig, George Shultz, James Baker, Lawrence Eagleburger, and Colin Powell); five secretaries of defense (James Schlesinger, Donald Rumsfeld, Casper Weinberger, Frank Carlucci, and Cheney); a chairman of the joint chiefs of staff (Powell), two secretaries of the treasury (William Simon and Baker); a secretary of energy (Schlesinger); and three chiefs of staff (Rumsfeld, Cheney, and Baker). Indeed a member of the Nixon Administration has held a cabinet post or been a senior advisor within the subsequent six administrations. That so many key figures of the Ford, Reagan, Bush (41), and Bush (43) Administrations first entered government service in the Nixon White House is arguably the most profound and long-lasting legacy of Richard Nixon.

Official Portrait of President Richard Nixon.
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Official Portrait of President Richard Nixon.

OFFICE NAME TERM
President Richard Nixon 1969–1974
Vice President Spiro T. Agnew 1969–1973
  Gerald R. Ford 1973–1974
State William P. Rogers 1969–1973
  Henry A. Kissinger 1973–1974
Treasury David M. Kennedy 1969–1971
  John B. Connally 1971–1972
  George P. Shultz 1972–1974
  William E. Simon 1974
Defense Melvin R. Laird 1969–1973
  Elliot L. Richardson 1973–1973
  James R. Schlesinger 1973–1974
Justice John N. Mitchell 1969–1972
  Richard G. Kleindienst 1972–1973
  Elliot L. Richardson 1973–1974
  William B. Saxbe 1974
Postmaster General Winton M. Blount 1969–1974
Interior Walter J. Hickel 1969–1971
  Rogers C. B. Morton 1971–1974
Agriculture Clifford M. Hardin 1969–1971
  Earl L. Butz 1971–1974
Commerce Maurice H. Stans 1969–1972
  Peter George Peterson 1972–1973
  Frederick B. Dent 1973–1974
Labor George P. Shultz 1969–1970
  James D. Hodgson 1970–1973
  Peter J. Brennan 1973–1974
HEW Robert H. Finch 1969–1970
  Elliot L. Richardson 1970–1973
  Caspar W. Weinberger 1973–1974
HUD George Romney 1969–1973
  James T. Lynn 1973–1974
Transportation John A. Volpe 1969–1973
  Claude S. Brinegar 1973–1974

Administration notables

Chiefs of Staff

Undersecretaries

Assistants

White House Counsel

Communications Office

Press Secretary

Speech Writers

Others

Supreme Court appointments

Nixon appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:

Nixon also made the following unsuccessful Supreme Court nominations:

Watergate

Nixon's letter of resignation
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Nixon's letter of resignation

Nixon departing the White House on August 9 1974
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Nixon departing the White House on August 9 1974

In October 1972, The Washington Post reported the FBI had determined Nixon aides had spied on and sabotaged numerous Democratic presidential candidates as a part of the operations that led to the infamous Watergate scandal. During the campaign five burglars were arrested on June 17, 1972, in the Democratic Party headquarters at the Watergate office complex. They were subsequently linked to the White House. This became one of a series of major scandals involving the Committee to Re-Elect the President (known as CRP but referred to by opponents as CREEP), including the White House enemies list and assorted "dirty tricks." The ensuing Watergate scandal exposed the Nixon administration's rampant corruption, illegality, and deceit.

Nixon himself downplayed the scandal as mere politics, but when his aides resigned in disgrace, Nixon's role in ordering an illegal cover-up came to light in the press, courts, and congressional investigations. Nixon evaded taxes, accepted illicit campaign contributions, ordered secret bombings, and harassed opponents with executive agencies, wiretaps, and break-ins. His supporters noted that the abuses of the Nixon presidency were but a logical extension of partisan abuses by Presidents Franklin Roosevelt, Kennedy, and Johnson such as use of the IRS against political opponents. Unlike the tape recordings by those Presidents, his secret recordings of White House conversations were revealed and subpoenaed and showed details of his complicity in the cover-up. Nixon was named by the grand jury investigating Watergate as "an unindicted co-conspirator" in the Watergate Scandal.

He lost support from some in his own party as well as much popular support after what became known as the Saturday Night Massacre of October 20, 1973, in which he ordered Archibald Cox, the special prosecutor in the Watergate case, to be fired, as well as firing several of his own subordinates who objected to this move. The House Judiciary Committee controlled by Democrats opened formal and public impeachment hearings against Nixon on May 9, 1974. Despite his efforts, one of the secret recordings, known as the "smoking gun" tape, was released on August 5, 1974, and revealed that Nixon authorized hush money to Watergate burglar E. Howard Hunt, and also revealed that Nixon ordered the CIA to tell the FBI to stop investigating certain topics because of "the Bay of Pigs thing". Such an order was later withdrawn or never carried out. In light of his loss of political support and the near certainty of both his impeachment by the House of Representatives and his probable conviction by the Senate, he resigned on August 9, 1974, after addressing the nation on television the previous evening. [listen] ([Media helphelp]·[info]) He never admitted criminal wrongdoing, although he later conceded errors of judgment.

On September 8 1974, a blanket pardon from President Gerald R. Ford, who served as Nixon's second Vice President, effectively ended any possibility of indictment. The pardon was highly controversial and Nixon's critics claimed that the blanket pardon was quid pro quo for his resignation. No evidence of this "corrupt bargain" has ever been proven, and many modern historians dismiss any claims of overt collusion between the two men concerning the pardon. The pardon hurt Ford politically, and it was one of the major reasons cited for Ford's defeat in the election of 1976.

Later years and death

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In his later years Nixon worked to rehabilitate his public image, and he enjoyed considerably more success than could have been anticipated at the time of his resignation. He gained great respect as an elder statesman in the area of foreign affairs, being consulted by both Democratic and Republican successors to the Presidency.

Further tape releases, however, removed any doubt of Nixon's involvement both in the Watergate cover-up and also the illegal campaign finances and intrusive government surveillance that were at the heart of the scandal.

Nixon wrote many books after his departure from politics, including his memoirs.

On April 18 1994, Nixon, 81, suffered a major stroke at his home in Park Ridge, New Jersey, and died four days later on April 22. He was buried beside his wife Pat Nixon (who had died ten months earlier, on June 22, 1993, of lung cancer) on the grounds of the Richard Nixon Library & Birthplace in Yorba Linda, California.

President Bill Clinton, former secretary of state Henry Kissinger, Senate Majority Leader Bob Dole and California Republican Governor Pete Wilson spoke at the April 27 funeral. Also in attendance were former Presidents Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush and their respective first ladies. Nixon was survived by his two daughters, along with his four grandchildren.

The Nixon Library contains only Nixon's pre- and post-presidential papers, because his presidential papers have been retained as government evidence. Nixon's attempts to protect his papers and gain tax advantages from them had been one of the important themes of the Watergate affair. Because of disputes over the papers, the library is privately funded and does not, like the other presidential libraries, receive support from the National Archives.

Legacy

Presidential scholars, both liberal and conservative, rank him near the bottom of the list because of the scandals, but most agree that Nixon presents a special problem because his foreign policy and domestic policy successes stands in dramatic contradiction to the corruption of his top aides and Nixon himself. Political scientist Walter Dean Burnham noted the "dichotomous or schizoid profiles. On some very important dimensions both Wilson and L.B. Johnson were outright failures in my view; while on others they rank very high indeed. Similarly with Nixon." Historian Alan Brinkley said: "There are presidents who could be considered both failures and great or near great (for example, Wilson, Johnson, Nixon)." James MacGregor Burns observed of Nixon, "How can one evaluate such an idiosyncratic president, so brilliant and so morally lacking?" * Skidmore, Max J. "Ranking and Evaluating Presidents: The Case of Theodore Roosevelt" White House Studies. Volume: 1. Issue: 4. 2001. pp 495+.

Media

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Popular culture

Nixon's career was frequently dogged by Nixon's personality, and the public perception of it. Editorial cartoonists such as Herblock and comedians had fun exaggerating Nixon's appearance and mannerisms, to the point where the line between the human and the caricature version of him became increasingly blurred. He was often portrayed as a sullen loner, with unshaven jowls, slumped shoulders, and a furrowed, sweaty brow. He was also characterized as the epitome of a "square" and the personification of unpleasant adult authority.

Nixon tried to shed these perceptions by staging photo-ops with young people and even cameo appearances on popular TV shows such as Laugh-In and Hee Haw (before he was President). He also frequently brandished the two-finger V sign (alternately viewed as the "Victory sign" or "peace sign") using both hands, an act which became one of his best-known trademarks. Due to his uptight image, many Americans were shocked to hear that the president had a much gruffer, aggressive side, revealed by the sheer amount of swearing and vicious comments seen on the transcripts of the the president's White House tapes. This did not help the public perception and fed the comedians even more. Nixon's sense of being persecuted by his "enemies," his grandiose belief in his own moral and political excellence, and his commitment to utilize ruthless power at all costs led some experts to describe him as having a narcissistic and paranoid personality. [Nixon: A Psychobiography] - Vamik D. Volkan, Norman Itzkowitz, and Andrew W. Dod, book review by Michael A. Ingall, accessed April 4 2006 During the Watergate Scandal, Nixon's approval rating had fallen to 25%.

Nixon meets Elvis Presley in December 1970
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Nixon meets Elvis Presley in December 1970

Media inspired by the Nixon Presidency

Richard M Nixon

Trivia

Quotations

Foreign policy

On race and religion

On Watergate

Presidents Ford, Carter, Reagan, Bush, and Clinton watched over Nixon's funeral in 1994. He was the first president to die since Lyndon Johnson in the 70's while Nixon was still president
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Presidents Ford, Carter, Reagan, Bush, and Clinton watched over Nixon's funeral in 1994. He was the first president to die since Lyndon Johnson in the 70's while Nixon was still president

On peace

Miscellaneous

See also

References

Primary sources

  • Nixon, Richard. (1960). The Challenges We Face: Edited and Compiled from the Speeches and Papers of Richard M. Nixon ISBN 0195457626.
  • Nixon, Richard. (1962). Six Crises. Doubleday. ISBN 0385001258.
  • Nixon, Richard. (1978). RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon (Reprint). Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671707418.
  • Nixon, Richard. (1980). Real War. Sidgwich Jackson. ISBN 0283986506.
  • Nixon, Richard. (1982). Leaders. Random House. ISBN 0446512494.
  • Nixon, Richard. (1987). No More Vietnams. Arbor House Publishing. ISBN 0877956685.
  • Nixon, Richard. (1988). 1999: Victory Without War. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671627120.
  • Nixon, Richard. (1990). In the Arena: A Memoir of Victory, Defeat, and Renewal. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671723189.
  • Nixon, Richard. (1992). Seize The Moment: America's Challenge In A One-Superpower World. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671743430.
  • Nixon, Richard. (1994). Beyond Peace. Random House. ISBN 0679433236.
  • Trivial Pursuit Inc.

Other Memoirs

  • John D. Ehrlichman, Witness to Power. The Nixon Years (1982)
  • H. R. Haldeman, The Haldeman Diaries. Inside the Nixon White House (1994), abridged version; complete diaries were published on CD-ROM by SONY.
  • Kissinger, Henry. Memoirs. 2 vols. (1979-1982).
  • Raymond Price, With Nixon (1977)
  • William Safire, Before the Fall. An Inside View of the Pre-Watergate White House (1975)
  • Maurice H. Stans, One of the President's Men: Twenty Years with Eisenhower and Nixon (1995)

Secondary sources

Biographies

  • Aitken, Jonathan. Nixon: A Life (1993), generally favorable
  • Ambrose, Stephen E. Nixon: The Education of a Politician 1913–1962 (1987); Nixon: The Triumph of a Politician, 1962–1972 (1989); Nixon: Ruin and Recovery 1973–1990 (1991). The nost detailed study; generally hostile
  • Greenberg, David. Nixon's Shadow: The History of an Image (2003).
  • Hoff, Joan. Nixon Reconsidered (1994). quite favorable
  • Morris, Roger. Richard Milhous Nixon: The Rise of an American Politician (1990).
  • Iwan Morgan. On Nixon (2002), favourable British view
  • Parmet, Herbert S. Richard Nixon and His America. (1990).
  • Reeves, Richard. President Nixon: Alone in the White House (2002).
  • Wicker, Tom. One of Us: Richard Nixon and the American Dream (1991).

Specialized studies

  • Hal W. Bochin; Richard Nixon: Rhetorical Strategist Greenwood Press, 1990
  • Friedman, Leon and William F. Levantrosser, eds. Richard M. Nixon: Politician, President, Administrator (1991), essays.
  • Genovese, Michael A. The Nixon Presidency: Power and Politics in Turbulent Times (1990).
  • John Robert Greene. The Limits of Power: The Nixon and Ford Administrations (1992)
  • Gellman, Irwin. The Contender: Richard Nixon: The Congress Years, 1946 to 1952 (1999).
  • Reichley, A. James. Conservatives in an Age of Change: The Nixon and Ford Administrations (1981), detailed narrative.
  • Small, Melvin. The Presidency of Richard Nixon (2003).
  • Summers, Anthony. The Arrogance of Power The Secret World of Richard Nixon (2000).
  • White, Theodore. The Making of the President 1968 : A narrative History of American politics in Action (1969)
  • White, Theodore. The Making of the President, 1972 (1973)

Foreign Policy and Vietnam

  • Andreas W. Daum et al., eds. America, the Vietnam War, and the World : Comparative and International Perspectives (Publications of the German Historical Institute) (2003)
  • John Lewis Gaddis. Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy 1982.
  • Jeffrey P. Kimball. Nixon's Vietnam War (2002
  • Levantrosser, William F. ed. Cold War Patriot and Statesman, Richard M. Nixon (1993), essays by scholars and senior officials.
  • Thornton, Richard C. The Nixon-Kissinger Years: Reshaping America's Foreign Policy (1989).

Domestic Policy

  • Flippen, J. Brooks. Nixon and the Environment (2000).
  • Vincent J. Burke. Nixon's Good Deed: Welfare Reform (1974)* J. Larry Hood, "The Nixon Administration and the Revised Philadelphia Plan for Affirmative Action: A Study in Expanding Presidential Power and Divided Government;' Presidential Studies Quarterly 23 (Winter 1993): 145-67;
  • Dean J. Kotlowski; "Richard Nixon and the Origins of Affirmative Action" The Historian. Volume: 60. Issue: 3. 1998. pp 523+.
  • Lawrence J. McAndrews; "The Politics of Principle: Richard Nixon and School Desegregation" The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 83 #3, 1998 pp 187+
  • Kenneth O'Reilly. Nixon's Piano: Presidents and Racial Politics from Washingtion to Clinton (1995)
  • Allen J. Matusow. Nixon's Economy: Booms, Busts, Dollars, and Votes (1998)

Watergate

  • Friedman, Leon and William F. Levantrosser, eds. Watergate and Afterward: The Legacy of Richard M. Nixon (1992), essays.
  • Kutler, Stanley I. "'The Wars of Watergate: The Last Crisis of Richard Nixon.'' (1990).
  • Michael Schudson. Watergate in American Memory: How We Remember, Forget, and Reconstruct the Past (1993)

Notes

External links

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  • *Yuri Andropov
  • *Konstantin Chernenko
  • *Mikhail Gorbachev

    • Political leaders: 

    Winston Churchill
  • *
    • Clement Attlee
  • *
    • Charles de Gaulle
  • *
    • Josip Broz Tito
  • *
    • Konrad Adenauer
  • *
    • Walter Ulbricht
  • *
    • Todor Zhivkov
  • *
    • Imre Nagy
  • *
    • Nicolae Ceauşescu
  • *
    • Alexander Dubček
  • *
    • Willy Brandt
  • *
    • Erich Honecker
  • *
    • Helmut Kohl
  • *
    • Pope John Paul II
  • *
    • Francisco Franco
  • *
    • Margaret Thatcher
  • *
    • Lech Wałęsa
  • Asia:
  • *
    • Mao Zedong
  • *
    • Zhou Enlai
  • *
    • Chiang Kai-shek
  • *
    • Kim Il-sung
  • *
    • Ho Chi Minh
  • Latin America:
  • *
    • Fidel Castro
  • *
    • Augusto Pinochet
  • *
    • Daniel Ortega

     

    From Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Original article here. Support Wikipedia by contributing or donating.
    All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License See Wikipedia Copyrights for details.

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