Violin

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A violin

The violin is a bowed stringed musical instrument that has four strings tuned a perfect fifth apart. It is the smallest and highest-tuned member of the violin family of string instruments, which also includes the viola and cello. (A related bowed string instrument, the double bass, technically belongs to the similar but distinct viol family.)

A violin is sometimes informally called a fiddle, no matter what kind of music is played on it. The words "violin" and "fiddle" come from the same Middle Latin word vitula, but "violin" came through the Romance languages, meaning small viola, and "fiddle" through Germanic languages.

A person who plays violin is called a violinist or fiddler, and a person who makes or repairs them is called a luthier, or simply a violin maker.

History of the violin

An intricately carved 17th century (believed 1665) so called 'King James' by Ralph Agutter, British Royal Family violin, on display in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.

The violin first emerged in northern Italy in the early 16th century. Most likely the first makers of violins borrowed from three different types of current instruments: the rebec, in use since the 10th century (itself derived from the Arab rebab), the Renaissance fiddle, and the lira da braccio. The Indian Ravanastron is also a predecessor of the violin. The earliest explicit description of the instrument, including its tuning, was in the Epitome musical by Jambe de Fer, published in Lyon in 1556. By this time the violin had already begun to spread throughout Europe.

The first real violin was built by Andrea Amati in the first half of the 16th century by order of the Medici family, who had asked for an instrument that could be used by street musicians, but with the quality of a lute, which was a very popular instrument among the noble in that time. The violin immediately became very popular, both among street musicians and the nobility, illustrated by the fact that the French king Charles IX ordered Amati to build a whole orchestra in the second half of the 16th century.

The oldest surviving violin, dated inside, is the "Charles IX" by Andrea Amati, made in Cremona in 1564. "The Messiah" or "Le Messie" (also known as the "Salabue") made by Antonio Stradivari in 1716 remains pristine, never having been used. It is now located in the Ashmolean Museum of Oxford. The most famous violin makers, called luthiers, between the late 16th century and the 18th century included:

• Amati family of Italian violin makers, Andrea Amati (1500-1577), Antonio Amati (1540-1607), Hieronymus Amati I (1561-1630), Nicolo Amati (1596-1684), Hieronymus Amati II (1649-1740)
• Guarneri family of Italian violin makers, Andrea Guarneri (1626-1698), Pietro of Mantua (1655-1720), Giuseppe Guarneri (Joseph filius Andreae) (1666-1739), Pietro Guarneri (of Venice) (1695-1762), and Giuseppe (del Gesu) (1698-1744)
• Antonio Stradivari (1644-1737) of Cremona
• Jacob Stainer (1617-1683) of Absam in Tyrol

To this day, instruments from the "Golden Age" of violin making, especially those made by Stradivari and Guarneri del Gesù, are the most sought-after instruments by both collectors and performers.

Violin construction and mechanics

The Construction of a Violin

Construction

A violin typically consists of a spruce top, maple ribs and back, two endblocks, a neck, a bridge, a soundpost, four strings, and various fittings, optionally including a chinrest, which may attach directly over, or to the left of, the tailpiece. A distinctive feature of a violin body is its "hourglass" shape and the arching of its top and back. The hourglass shape comprises an upper bout, a lower bout, and two concave C-bouts at the "waist," providing clearance for the bow.

The "voice" of a violin depends on its shape, the wood it is made from, the "graduation" (the thickness profile) of both the top and back, and the varnish which coats its outside surface. The varnish and especially the wood continue to improve with age, making the fixed supply of old violins much sought-after.

All parts of the instrument which are glued together are done so using animal hide glue, a traditional strong water-based adhesive that is reversible, as glued joints can be disassembled if needed. Weaker, diluted glue is usually used to fasten the top to the ribs, and the nut to the fingerboard, since common repairs involve removing these parts.

The purfling running around the edge of the spruce top provides some protection against cracks originating at the edge. It also allows the top to flex more independently of the rib structure. Painted-on faux purfling on the top is a sign of an inferior instrument. The back and ribs are typically made of maple, most often with a matching striped figure, referred to as "flame", "fiddleback" or "tiger stripe" (technically called curly maple).

The neck is usually maple with a flamed figure compatible with that of the ribs and back. It carries the fingerboard, typically made of ebony, but often some other wood stained or painted black. Ebony is the preferred material because of its hardness, beauty, and superior resistance to wear. The maple neck alone is not strong enough to support the tension of the strings without bending, relying on its lamination with the fingerboard for strength. The shape of the neck and fingerboard affect how easily the violin may be played. Fingerboards are dressed to a particular transverse curve, and have a small lengthwise "scoop," or concavity, slightly more pronounced on the lower strings, especially when meant for gut or synthetic strings.

Some old violins (and some made to appear old) have a grafted scroll, evidenced by a glue joint between the pegbox and neck. Many authentic old instruments have had their necks reset to a slightly increased angle, and lengthened by about a centimeter. The neck graft allows the original scroll to be kept with a Baroque violin when bringing its neck to conformance with modern standard.

Bridge blank and finished bridge

The bridge is a precisely cut piece of maple that forms the lower anchor point of the vibrating length of the strings and transmits the vibration of the strings to the body of the instrument. Its top curve holds the strings at the proper height from the fingerboard in an arc, allowing each to be sounded separately by the bow. The sound post, or "soul post", fits precisely between the back and top, and may be moved slightly when adjusting the tone of the instrument. If the strings are all slackened, then the downward force of the bridge is reduced, sometimes allowing the soundpost to fall over, especially if it has been fitted at a low tension.

The tailpiece anchors the strings to the lower bout of the violin by means of the tailgut, which loops around the endpin, which fits into a tapered hole in the bottom block. Very often the E string will have a fine tuning lever worked by a small screw turned by the fingers. Fine tuners may also be applied to the other strings, especially on a student instrument, and are sometimes built in to the tailpiece.

At the scroll end, the strings wind around the tuning pegs in the pegbox. Strings usually have a colored "silk" wrapping at both ends, for identification and to provide friction against the pegs. The tapered pegs allow friction to be increased or decreased by the player applying appropriate pressure along the axis of the peg while turning it.

Violin and bow.

Strings

Violinists carry replacement strings with their instruments to have one available in case a string breaks. A teacher can advise students how often to change strings, as it depends on how much and how hard one plays. Apart from obvious things, such as the winding of a string coming undone from wear, a player will generally change a string when it no longer plays "true", with a negative effect on intonation, or when it loses the desired tone.

For more information, see the strings section of Violin construction.

Pitch range

The range of a violin

The compass of the violin is from the G below the middle C to above the highest note on the modern piano. The top notes, however, are often produced by natural or artificial harmonics, as placing fingers very close to the bridge on the highest string can often produce a very unpleasant and imprecise tone.

Acoustics

See also Sound production (string instruments)

See this external link for more about [Violin Acoustics].

Sizes

The body length (not including the neck) of a 'full-size' or 4/4 violin is about 14 inches (35 cm) or smaller in some models of the 17th century. A 3/4 violin is 13 inches (33 cm), and a 1/2 size is 12 inches (30 cm). Viola size is specified as body length in inches rather than fractional sizes. A 'full-size' viola averages 16 inches (40 cm).

When determining the violin size appropriate for a child, a general rule is to have the child hold the instrument against the neck, and reach out past the end of the scroll. Some teachers feel that students can handle a size if they are able to reach around the end of the scroll and see the tips of the fingers, while others recommend smaller sizes as safer, preferring to have the scroll fall short of the student's wrist.

Tuning

Scroll and pegbox, correctly strung

The pitches of open strings on a violin

Violins are tuned by turning the pegs in the pegbox under the scroll, or by adjusting the fine tuner screws at the tailpiece. All violins have pegs; fine tuners (also called fine adjusters) are optional. Most fine tuners consist of a metal screw that moves a lever to which the string is attached. They permit very small pitch adjustments with much more ease than the pegs.

Fine tuners are usually used with solid metal or composite strings that may be difficult to tune with pegs alone; they are not used with gut strings, which have greater flexibility and don't respond adequately to the very small changes in tension of fine tuners. Some violinists, particularly beginners or those who favor metal strings, use fine tuners on all 4 strings. Others only use a fine tuner with the E string to limit the extent to which the tuners affect the sound of the instrument.

To tune a violin, the A string is first tuned to a standard pitch (usually 440 Hz), using either a tuning device or another instrument. (When accompanying a fixed-pitch instrument such as a piano or accordion, the violin tunes to it.) The other strings are then tuned against each other in intervals of perfect fifths by bowing them in pairs. A minutely higher tuning is sometimes employed for solo playing to give the instrument a brighter sound; conversely, Baroque music is sometimes played using lower tunings to make the violin's sound more gentle. After tuning, the instrument's bridge may be examined to ensure that it is standing straight and centered between the inner nicks of the f holes; a crooked bridge may significantly affect the sound of an otherwise well-made violin.

The tuning G-D-A-E is used for most violin music. Other tunings are occasionally employed; the G string, for example, can be tuned up to A. The use of nonstandard tunings in classical music is known as scordatura; in some folk styles, it is called "cross-tuning." One famous example of scordatura in classical music is Saint-Saëns' Danse Macabre, where the solo violin's E string is tuned down to E flat to impart an eerie dissonance to the composition.

While most violins have four strings, there are some instruments with five, six, or even seven strings. The extra strings on such violins typically are lower in pitch than the G-string; these strings are usually tuned to C, F, and B flat. If the instrument's playing length, or string length from nut to bridge, is equal to that of an ordinary full-scale violin (i.e., a bit less than 13 inches, or 330 mm), then it may be properly termed a violin. Some such instruments are somewhat longer and should be regarded as violas. Violins with five strings or more are often used in jazz or folk music.

Bows

Bow frogs, top to bottom: violin, viola, cello

A violin is usually played using a bow consisting of a stick with a ribbon of horsehair strung between the tip and frog (or nut, or heel) at opposite ends. A typical violin bow may be 29 inches (74.5 cm) overall, and weigh about 2 oz. (60 g). Viola bows may be about 3/16" (5 mm) shorter and 1/3 oz. (10 g) heavier.

At the frog end, a screw adjuster tightens or loosens the hair. Just forward of the frog, a leather thumb cushion and winding protect the stick and provide grip for the player's hand. The winding may be wire, silk, or whalebone (now imitated by alternating strips of yellow and black plastic.) Some student bows (particularly the ones made of solid fiberglass) substitute a plastic sleeve for grip and winding.

The hair of the bow traditionally comes from the tail of a "white" (technically, a grey) male horse, although some cheaper bows use synthetic fiber. Occasional rubbing with rosin makes the hair grip the strings intermittently, causing them to vibrate. The stick is traditionally made of brazilwood, although a stick made from this type of wood which is of a more select quality (and higher price) is referred to as pernambuco wood (both types are taken from the same tree species). Some student bows are made of fiberglass. Recent innovations have allowed carbon-fiber to be used as a material for the stick at all levels of craftsmanship.

For more information, see the Bow section of Violin construction.

Playing the violin

The standard way of holding the violin is under the chin and supported by the left shoulder, often assisted by a shoulder rest. This practice varies in some cultures; for instance, Indian (Carnatic and Hindustani) violinists play seated on the floor and rest the scroll of the instrument on the side of their foot. The strings may be sounded by drawing the hair of the bow across them (arco) or, alternatively, by plucking them (pizzicato). The left hand regulates the sounding length of the string by stopping it against the fingerboard with the fingertips, producing different pitches.

Left hand and pitch production

First Position Fingerings

As placement of the left hand fingers on the strings is not aided by frets; players must finger the string at the right spot by skill alone, or they will sound out of tune. Good intonation comes from lots of practice.

Beginners often rely on tapes on the finger board in several places for proper left hand finger placement, but many instructors require their students to abandon the tapes quickly as they advance. Another commonly-used marking technique uses dots of typist's correction fluid on the fingerboard, which wear off in a few weeks of regular practice.

The fingers are conventionally numbered 1 (index) through 4 (little finger). Especially in instructional editions of violin music, numbers over the notes may indicate which finger to use, with "O" indicating "open" string. The chart to the right shows the arrangement of notes reachable in first position.

Left hand finger placement is a matter for the ears and hand, not the eyes. That is, finger placement has strong aural and tactile/kinesthetic components; visual references are only marginally useful. Note also (not shown on this chart) that the spacing between note positions becomes closer as the fingers move up (in pitch) from the nut. In fact, since the length of the string between the finger and the bridge and the pitch, or frequency, of the note, are inversely proportional, the distance between two notes halves as the pair of notes are raised by an octave. The yellow bars on the sides of the chart represent three of the usual tape placements for beginners, at 1^st, high 2^nd, and 3^rd fingers.

Positions

Moving the hand up the neck, so the first finger takes the place of the second finger, brings the player into second position. Letting the first finger take the first-position place of the third finger brings the player to third position, and so on. The upper limit of the violin's range is largely determined by the skill of the player, who may easily play more than two octaves on a single string, and four octaves on the instrument as a whole, although by the point that a violinist has progressed to the point of being able to use the entire range of the instrument, references to particular positions become less common. Position names are mostly used for the lower positions and in method books; for this reason, it is uncommon to hear references to anything higher than fifth position. The lowest position on a violin is half-position, where the first finger is very close to the nut, this position is usually only used in complex music or music with many flatted notes.

The same note will sound substantially different depending on what string is used to play it. Sometimes the composer or arranger will specify the string to be used in order to achieve the desired tone quality; this is indicated in the music by the marking, for example, sul G, meaning to play on the G string. For example, playing very high up on the A, G and D strings gives a distinctively strained quality to the sound, while playing in the middle of the G string's range gives a rich sound. Otherwise, moving into different positions is usually done for tactical reasons, for reaching higher notes or avoiding string crossings.

Audio sample
Violin sounds and techniques: [566 KB] ([Media helphelp]·[info]) Open strings (arco and pizzicato) A major scale (arco and pizzicato) Beginning of an A major scale with vibrato A major scale played col legno Natural harmonics of an A, E, and an A Artificial (false) harmonic of A7 Harmonic glissando on the A string
See the [media] category at [Wikipedia Commons] for more media

Open strings

Playing an open string simultaneously with a stopped note on an adjacent string produces a bagpipe-like drone, often used by composers in imitation of folk music. Sometimes the two notes are identical (for instance, playing a fingered A on the D string against the open A string), giving a ringing sort of "fiddling" sound. Playing an open string simultaneously with an identical stopped note can also be called for when more volume is required, especially in orchestral playing.

Double stops and drones

Double stopping is when two separate strings are stopped by the fingers, and bowed simultaneously, producing a part of a chord. Sometimes moving to a higher position is necessary for the left hand to be able to reach both notes at once. Sounding an open string alongside a fingered note is another way to get a partial chord. While sometimes also called a double stop, it is more properly called a drone, as the drone note may be sustained for a passage of different notes played on the adjacent string. Three or four notes can also be played at one time (triple and quadruple stops, respectively), and, according to the style of music, the notes might all be played simultaneously or might be played as two successive double stops, favoring the higher notes.

Vibrato

Vibrato is a technique of the left hand and arm in which the pitch of a note varies in a pulsating rhythm. While various parts of the hand or arm may be involved in the motion, the end result is a movement of the fingertip bringing about a slight change in vibrating string length. Violinists oscillate backwards, or lower in pitch from the actual note when using vibrato, since perception favors the highest pitch in a varying sound. Vibrato does little, if anything, to disguise an out-of-tune note: in other words, vibrato is a poor substitute for good intonation. Still, scales and other exercises meant to work on intonation are typically played without vibrato to make the work easier and more effective. Music students are taught that unless otherwise marked in music, vibrato is assumed or even mandatory. This can be an obstacle to a classically-trained violinist wishing to play in a style that uses little or no vibrato at all, such as baroque music played in period style and many traditional fiddling styles.

The "when" and "what for" of violin vibrato are artistic matters of style and taste. In acoustical terms, the interest that vibrato adds to the sound has to do with the way that the overtone mix (or tone color, or timbre) and the directional pattern of sound projection change with changes in pitch. By "pointing" the sound at different parts of the room in a rhythmic way, vibrato adds a "shimmer" or "liveliness" to the sound of a well-made violin. See [Schleske] and [Weinreich].

Harmonics

Harmonics are marked in music with a little circle above the note that determines the pitch of the harmonic. There are two types of harmonics: natural harmonics and artificial harmonics (also known as false harmonics).

Natural harmonics are played on an open string. The pitch of the open string is called the fundamental frequency. Harmonics are also called overtones. They occur at whole-number multiples of the fundamental, which is called the first harmonic. The second harmonic is the first overtone, the third harmonic is the second overtone, and so on. The second harmonic is in the middle of the string and sounds an octave higher than the string's pitch. The third harmonic breaks the string into thirds, and the fourth harmonic breaks the string into fourths. The sound of the second harmonic is the clearest of them all, because it is a common node with all the succeeding even-numbered harmonics (4th, 6th, etc.). The third harmonic (and succeeding odd-numbered harmonics) are harder to play because they break the string into three (or other odd-numbered parts) and don't share as many nodes with other harmonics.

Artificial harmonics are more difficult to produce than natural harmonics, as they involve both stopping the string and playing a harmonic on the stopped note. Using the "octave frame"—the normal distance between the first and fourth fingers in any given position—with the fourth finger just touching the string a fourth higher than the stopped note produces the fourth harmonic, two octaves above the stopped note. Finger placement and pressure, as well as bow speed, pressure, and sounding point are all essential in getting the desired harmonic to sound. And to add to the challenge, in passages with different notes played as false harmonics, the distance between stopping finger and harmonic finger must constantly change, since the spacing between notes changes along the length of the string.

The "harmonic finger" can also touch at a major third above the pressed note (a sixth harmonic), or a fifth higher (a third harmonic). These harmonics are less commonly used; in the case of the major third, the harmonic does not speak as readily; in the case of the fifth, the stretch is greater than is comfortable for many violinists.

Elaborate passages in artificial harmonics can be found in virtuoso violin literature, especially of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Two notable examples of this are an entire section of Vittorio Monti's Csárdás and a passage towards the middle of the third movement of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's Violin Concerto.

Right hand and tone color

Bowing techniques

The violin produces louder notes with greater bow speed or more weight on the string. The two methods are not equivalent, because they produce different timbres; pressing down on the string tends to produce a harsher, more intense sound.

The sounding point where the bow intersects the string also influences timbre. Playing close to the bridge (sul ponticello) gives a more intense sound than usual, emphasizing the higher harmonics; and playing with the bow over the end of the fingerboard (sul tasto) makes for a delicate, ethereal sound, emphasizing the fundamental frequency. Dr. Suzuki referred to the sounding point as the "Kreisler highway"; one may think of different sounding points as "lanes" in the highway.

Various methods of 'attack' with the bow produce different articulations. There are many bowing techniques that allow for every range of playing style and many teachers, players, and orchestras spend a lot of time developing techniques and creating a unified technique within the group.

Pizzicato

Col legno

Mute

Musical styles

Classical music

Since the Baroque era the violin has been one of the most important of all instruments in classical music, for several reasons. The tone of the violin stands out above other instruments, making it appropriate for playing a melody line. In the hands of a good player, the violin is extremely agile, and can execute rapid and difficult sequences of notes.

Violins make up a large part of an orchestra, and are usually divided into two sections, known as the first and second violins. Composers often assign the melody to the first violins, while second violins play harmony, accompaniment patterns or the melody an octave lower than the first violins. A string quartet similarly has parts for first and second violins, as well as a viola part, and a bass instrument, such as the cello or, rarely, the bass.

Jazz

The earliest references to jazz performance using the violin as a solo instrument are documented during the first decades of the 20th century. The first great jazz violinist was Joe Venuti who is best known for his work with guitarist Eddie Lang during the 1920s. Since that time there have been many superb improvising violinists including Stéphane Grappelli, Stuff Smith, Ray Perry, Ray Nance, Elek Bacsik, Claude "Fiddler" Williams, Leroy Jenkins, Billy Bang, Mat Maneri, Malcolm Goldstein. Other notable jazz violinists are Regina Carter, and Jean-Luc Ponty.

Violins also appear in ensembles supplying orchestral backgrounds to many jazz recordings.

Popular music

The hugely popular Motown recordings of the 60's and 70's relied heavily on strings as part of their trademark texture. Earlier genres of pop music, at least those separate from the Rock 'n' Roll movement, tended to make use of fairly traditional orchestras, sometimes large ones; examples include the American "Crooners" such as Bing Crosby.

Up to the 1970s, most types of popular music used bowed strings, but the rise of electronically created music in the 1980s saw a decline in their use, as synthesized string sections took their place. Since the end of the 20th century, real strings have began making a comeback in pop music.

Indian and Arabic pop music is filled with the sound of violins, both soloists and ensembles.

Some folk/viking metal bands use the violin in their songs (i.e. Thyrfing), and some even have a permanent violinist (i.e. Ásmegin).

One of the best-selling bands of the 1990's, the Corrs, relied heavily on the skills of violinist Sharon Corr. The violin was intimately integrated with the Irish tin whistle, the Irish hand drum (bodhran), as well as being used as intro and outro of many of their Celtic-flavored pop-rock songs.

Indian classical music

See also: Indian classical musical style and Indian violinists (including Carnatic and Hindustani)

Folk music and fiddling

In many traditions of folk music, the tunes are not written but are memorized by successive generations of musicians and passed on in both informal and formal contexts.

Fiddle

When played as a folk instrument, the violin is ordinarily referred to in English as a fiddle.

One very slight difference between "fiddles" and ordinary violins may be seen in American (e.g., bluegrass and old-time music) fiddling: in these styles, the bridge is often shaved down so that it is less curved. This makes it easier to play double stops and triple stops, allowing one to play chords with less effort.

MIDI

The sound of a real violin can be simulated electronically with the MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) system, using electronic synthesis. Under MIDI, all instruments are assigned a number; a single violin played arco is instrument #41, where the numbering begins from #1. Though general MIDI does not allow for distinction between up bows and down bows, it is possible to differentiate between staccato and legato by adjusting note durations, which most notation software capable of outputting MIDI can handle. General MIDI also provides for regular pizzicato but not left-hand pizzicato, but in any case, under MIDI, pizzicato is at most an approximation of the actual sound.

See also

• Electric violin
• Stroh violin
• For instruments related to the violin, see String instruments.
• Violin making and maintenance

Further reading and external links

• The Contemporary Violin: ExtENDed Performance Techniques, by Patricia and Allen Strange, ISBN 0520224094
• The Fiddle Book, by Marion Thede, (1970), Oak Plublications. ISBN 0825601452
• Latin Violin, by Sam Bardfeld, ISBN 0962846775

• [All About the Violin] - Violin practice methods, music, and information violin making
• [Anatomy of a violin].
• [Violin in carnatic music, the music of South India]
• [BeginBand.com] has information about learning to play the violin as well as a soundclip.
• [Connie's Violin Page] Resource page for violin teachers, students and parents
• [Fiddle Tunes of the Old Frontier, the Henry Reed Collection, US Library of Congress] audio clips, and transcriptions by Alan Jabbour
• [The Fiddle and Alternative Strings Forum]
• [The Fiddlers' Retreat: Irish Music, Irish Food, Irish Culture]
• [The geometric construction of the violin]
• [The history of the violin] - A quick overview about the history of the violin, including answers to questions such as "Why old master instruments sound so good"
• [Online Violin Dictionary, Violin Books and Ebooks, Sheet Music Downloads, Violin Journal - MusicForStrings.com]
• [www.PabloSarasate.com]
• [the violin] - A ThinkQuest 1999 website for education (history, manufacture, etc.)
• [Violin Acoustics] from [Music Acoustics] at the University of New South Wales.
• [Violin FAQ]
• [Violinist.com] - An online community of violinists, including discussion, blogs, FAQ and a luthier directory.
• [ViolinMP3.com] - "Exploring the mysterious art of the violin"
• [Wire-frame vibration mode animation] (Click the "animation" button on Martin Schleske's home page.)

[[zh-yue:小提琴]]

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