Zoroastrianism

Encyclopedia : Z : ZO : ZOR : Zoroastrianism

Part of a series on Zoroastrianism

Primary Topics

Zoroastrianism / Mazdaism Ahura Mazda Zarathustra (Zoroaster)

Angels and Demons

Overview of the Angels Amesha Spentas · Yazatas Ahuras · Daevas Angra Mainyu

Scripture and Worship

Avesta · Gathas The Ahuna Vairya Invocation Fire Temples

Accounts and Legends

Dēnkard Book of Arda Viraf Qissa-i Sanjan

History and Culture

Medes · Achaemenids Sassanids The "Zurvan Heresy" Calendar · Eschatology

Adherents

Parsis · Iranis Zoroastrians in Iran

See Also

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Zoroastrianism is the name of the religion and philosophy based on the teachings ascribed to the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathushtra, Zartosht). Mazdaism is the name of the religion that acknowledges the divine authority of Ahura Mazda, proclaimed by Zoroaster to be the one uncreated Creator of all (God).

As demonstrated by Zoroastrian creed and articles of faith, the two terms are effectively synonymous. In a declaration of the creed - the Fravarānē - the adherent states: "... I profess myself a devotee of Mazda, a follower of Zarathustra. ..." (Yasna 12.2, 12.8)

Terminology

The term 'Mazdaism' (IPA:Brit. /'mazdəːz(ə)m/, U.S. /'mæzdəˌːzəm/) probably derives from Mazdayasna, a compound expression from the Avesta that combines the last element of the name Ahura Mazda and the Avestan language word yasna meaning 'worship, devotion' (cognate with Sanskrit yajña, Middle Persian yasn). The March 2001 draft edition of the OED notes that an alternate form, 'Mazdeism', perhaps derived from the french Mazdéisme, appeared in 1871.

In the English language, adherents of the faith refer to themselves as 'Zoroastrians' or, less commonly, 'Zarathustrians'. Equivalents in other languages include Behdin بهدین, Zartoshti and Mazdayasni. In Central Asia and the Caucasus, the expression Behdini ("followers of Daena", for which "Good Religion" is one translation) appears to be prevalent, though in Zoroastrianism itself, this is (also) the collective term for one who is not of the hereditary occupational class of the athornan, or priesthood.

History

Herodotus's The Histories (completed c. 440 BCE) includes a description of greater Iranian society with what may be recognizably Zoroastrian features, including exposure of the dead. Perhaps more importantly, The Histories is a primary source of information on the early period of the Achaemenid era (648–330 BCE), in particular with respect to the role of the Magi. According to Herodotus i.101, the "Magi" were the sixth tribe of the Medians (until the unification of the Persian empire under Cyrus the Great, all Iranians were referred to as Mede or Mada by the peoples of the Ancient World), who appear to have been the priestly caste of the Mesopotamian-influenced branch of Zoroastrianism today known as "Zurvanism", and who wielded considerable influence at the courts of the Median emperors.

Following the unification of the Median and Persian empires in 550 BCE, Cyrus II and later his son Cambyses II curtailed the powers of the "Magi" after these had attempted to seed dissent following their loss of influence. In 522 BCE, the "Magi" revolted and set up a rival claimant to the throne. The usurper, pretending to to be Cyrus' younger son Smerdis, took power shortly thereafter. Owing to the despotic rule of Cambyses and his long absence in Egypt, "the whole people, Persians, Medes and all the other nations," acknowledged the usurper, especially as he granted a remission of taxes for three years (Herodotus iii. 68).

Whether Cyrus II was a Zoroastrian is subject to debate. It did however influence him to the extent that it became the non-imposing religion of Persia, and its beliefs would later allow Cyrus to free the Jews from captivity (and allow them to return to Canaan) when the Persian took Babylon in 539 BCE. Whether Darius I, though certainly a devotee of Ahura Mazda (as attested to several times in the Behistun inscription), was a follower of Zoroaster has not been conclusively established, since a devotion to Ahura Mazda was (at the time) not necessarily an indication of an adherence to Zoroaster's teaching.

Darius I and later Achaemenid emperors, though acknowledging their devotion to Ahura Mazda in inscriptions, appear to have permitted religions to coexist. Nonetheless, it was during the Achaemenid period that Zoroastrianism gained momentum, and a number of the Zoroastrian texts (that today are part of the greater compendium of the Avesta) have been attributed to that period. It was also during the (later) Achaemenid era that many of the divinities and divine concepts of proto-Indo-Iranian religion(s) were incorporated in Zoroastrianism, in particular, those to whom the days of the month of the Zoroastrian calendar are dedicated. That religious calendar, which is still in use today, is itself (to some extent) an Achaemenid-era development. Those divinities, the yazatas (Persian jazd), are present-day Zoroastrianism's angels. (Dhalla, 1938).

Almost nothing is known of the status of Zoroastrianism under the Seleucids and Parthians who ruled over Persia following Alexander the Great's invasion in 330 BCE. According to later Zoroastrian legends (Denkard, Book of Arda Viraf), many of the Zoroastrian sacred texts were lost when Alexander's troops destroyed the royal library at Persepolis subsequent to the taking of the city. Diodorus Siculus's Bibliotheca historia (completed c. 60 BCE), which is to a great extent an encapsulation of earlier works, appears to substantiate Zoroastrian legend (Diod. 17.72.2-17.72.6). According to one archaeological examination, the ruins of the palace of Xerxes bear traces of having been subjected to fire (Stolze, 1882). Whether a vast collection of (semi-)religious texts "written on parchment in gold ink" as suggested by the Denkard actually existed remains a matter of speculation, but is in all likelyhood untrue. Given that many of the Denkards statements-as-fact have since been established as untrue, among scholars, the tale of the library is widely accepted to be a fiction. (Kellens, 2002)

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A rock relief at Naqsh-e Rostam, depicting the triumph of Shapur I over three Roman Emperors Valerian, Gordian III and Philip the Arab.

When the Sassanid dynasty came into power in Persia in 228 CE, they aggressively promoted the Zurvanite form of Zoroastrianism and in some cases persecuted Christians and Manichaeans. When the Sassanids captured territory from the Romans, they often built fire temples there to promote their religion. The Sassanids were suspicious of Christians not least because of their perceived ties to the Christian Roman Empire. Thus, those Persian Christians loyal to the Patriarchate of Babylon - which had broken with Roman Christianity when the latter condemned Nestorianism - were tolerated and even sometimes favored by the Sassanids. Nestorians lived in large numbers in Mesopotamia and Khuzestan during this period.

A form of Zoroastrianism was apparently also the chief religion of pre-Christian Armenia, or at least was prominent there. During periods of Sassanid suzerainty over Armenia, the Persians made attempts to promote the religion there as well.

Well before the 6th century, Zoroastrianism had spread to northern China via the Silk Road, gaining official status in a number of Chinese states. Remains of Zoroastrian temples have been found in Kaifeng and Zhenjiang, and according to some scholars, remained as late as the 1130s, but by the 13th century the religion had faded from prominence in China. However, many scholars assert the influence of Zoroastrianism (as well as later Manicheism, which drew from Zoroastrianism) on elements of Buddhism, especially in terms of light symbolism.

In the 7th century, the Sassanid dynasty was overthrown by the Arabs. Although some of the later rulers had Zoroastrian shrines destroyed, or prohibited Zoroastrian worship, initially Zoroastrians were included as People of the Book and allowed to practice their religion freely. Mass conversions to Islam were neither desired nor allowed, in accordance with Islamic law. There was a slow but steady movement of the population of Persia toward Islam. The nobility and city-dwellers were the first to convert. Islam spread more slowly among the peasantry and the dihqans, or landed gentry. Later, the jizya, a poll tax imposed on non-muslims, probably accelerated the process.

Many Zoroastrians fled, among them several groups who eventually migrated to the western shores of the Indian subcontinent, where they finally settled. According to the Qissa-i Sanjan "Story of Sanjan", the only existing account of the early years of Zoroastrian refugees in India, the immigrants originated from (greater) Khorasan. The descendants of those and other settlers, who are today known as the Parsis, founded the Indian cities of Sanjan and Navsari, which are said to have been named after the cities of their origin: Sanjan (near Merv, in present-day Turkmenistan) and the eponymous Sari (in modern Mazandaran, Iran). (Kotwal, 2004)

In the centuries following the fall of the Sassanid Empire, Zoroastrianism began to gradually return to the form it had had under the Achaemenids, and no evidence of what is today called the "Zurvan Heresy" exists beyond the 10th century CE. (Boyce, 2002) Ironically, it was Zurvanism and Zurvan-influenced texts that first reached the west, leading to the supposition that Zoroastrianism was a religion with two deities: Zurvan and Ahura Mazda (the latter being opposed by Angra Mainyu).

Today, the number of Zoroastrians is significantly lower than it once was, but the religion is alive and dynamic. Over the centuries, adherents of the faith have dispersed in all directions, but greater concentrations of Zoroastrians may still be found on the Indian subcontinent and in Iran.

Relation to other religions and cultures

Some scholars (Boyce, 1987; Black and Rowley, 1987; Duchesne-Guillemin, 1988) believe that large portions of the eschatology, angelology, and demonology (see Asmodai) of Judaism, a key influence on Christianity, originated in Zoroastrianism, and were transferred to Judaism during the Babylonian captivity and the Persian era, despite the numerous structural differences in the belief systems, crucial to the faiths, as in the issue over whether the evil spirit is a product of the good spirit.

Some also believe monotheism to have been a Zoroastrian influence, as Deutero-Isaiah supposedly makes a first monotheistic declaration (Isaiah 45:5-7) during the reign of the Persian Kings, that corresponds to his declaration that Jews were to obey Cyrus.

The Cyrus Cylinder, sometimes described as the "first charter of human rights"

According to Mary Boyce "Zoroastrianism is the oldest of the revealed credal religions, and it has probably had more influence on mankind, directly or indirectly, than any other single faith... some of its leading doctrines were adopted by Judaism, Christianity and Islam". (Boyce, 1979, pg 1) Zoroastrianism has been proposed as the source of some of the most important post-Torah aspects of Judaic religious thinking, which emerged after the Babylonian captivity, from which Jews were liberated by Cyrus the Great.

This is also a view put forward by King and Moore, who wrote in The Gnostics and Their Remains that

it was from this very creed of Zoroaster that the Jews derived all the angelology of their religion... the belief in a future state; of rewards and punishments, ... the soul's immortality, and the Last Judgment - all of them essential parts of the Zoroastrian scheme. (King, 1887)

Many aspects of Zoroastrianism are in turn present in the culture and mythologies of the peoples of the greater Persian cultural continent, not least because Ferdowsi incorporated a number of the figures and stories from the Avesta in his epic, Shāhnāme.

Religious texts

Primary texts

The most ancient of the texts of the Avesta are in an old or Gathic Avestan language and are believed to have been transmitted orally for centuries before they found written form. Later texts date from between the 8th century BCE to the Achaemenid period (648–330 BCE) and are in Original Young Avestan and Artificial Young Avestan respectively. In existing copies of the text, the Avestan language words are written in Din dabireh script, a Sassanid era (226-651 CE) invention.

Yasna 28.1, Ahunavaita Gatha (Bodleian MS J2)

The contents of the Avesta are generally divided into five categories. The divisions are topical and are by no means fixed or canonical. Some scholars prefer to place the five categories in two groups, the one liturgical, and the other general.

• The Yasna, the primary liturgical collection; includes the Gathas, which are thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself.
• The Visparad, a collection of supplements to the Yasna.
• The Yashts, hymns in honor of the divinities of Zoroastrian angelology.
• The Vendidād, describes the various forms of evil spirits and ways to confound them.
• shorter texts and prayers, the five nyaishes "worship, praise", the siroze "thirty days" (see Zoroastrian calendar) and the afringans "blessings".

Secondary works

• The Dēnkard "Acts of Religion" in Middle Persian
• The Bundahishn "Original Creation" in Middle Persian
• The Mēnog-ī Khirad "Spirit of Wisdom" in Middle Persian
• The Arda Wiraf Nāmag "The Book of Arda Viraf" in Middle Persian
• The Zartoshtnāme "Book of Zoroaster" in Modern Persian
• The Saddar "Hundred Doors or Chapters" in Modern Persian
• The Rivayats or traditional treatises in Modern Persian

Other texts

• The Khordeh Avesta, a collection of everyday prayers from the Avesta.
• Zend (lit: commentaries) fragments.

The prayers of the Khorda Avesta are in Avestan, which continues to be the Zoroastrian language of prayer even today. The most sacred of these prayers is the Ahuna Vairya (also known as the yatha ahu vairyo), which has been interpreted to be the summation of the belief in Ahura Mazda, "the seed of seeds of the reckoning of the religion." (Dēnkard 8.45.1)

Principal beliefs

right

Ahura Mazda is the beginning and the end, the creator of everything which can and cannot be seen, the Eternal, the Pure and the only Truth. In the Gathas, the most sacred texts of Zoroastrianism and thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, the prophet acknowledged devotion to no other divinity besides Ahura Mazda.

Daena (din in modern Persian) is the eternal Law, whose order was revealed to humanity through the Mathra-Spenta "Holy Words". Daena has been used to mean religion, faith, law, even as a translation for the Hindu and Buddhist term Dharma: it is the correct order of the universe, which humanity naturally must follow through the "Sudra"- "Good/Holy Path" and the "Kusti" - the Pathfinder"

Central to Zoroastrianism is the emphasis on moral choice, of life as a battle-ground between moral and immoral forces. According to the Gathas, humans are free and responsible beings. Predestination is rejected in Zoroastrian teaching. Humans bear responsibility for all situations they are in, and in the way they act to one another. Reward, punishment, happiness and grief all depend on how individuals live their life. Good transpires for those who do righteous deeds. Those who do evil have themselves to blame for their ruin. Zoroastrian morality is summed up in the simple phrase, "Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds" (Humata, Hukhta, Hvarshta in Avestan and Pendar-e Nik, Goftar-e Nik, Kerdar-e Nik in modern Persian).

In present-day Zoroastrianism, the moral and immoral forces are represented by Spenta Mainyu and its Satanic antithesis Angra Mainyu, the 'good spirit' and 'evil spirit' emanations of Ahura Mazda respectively. This opposition is a modern development of the Gathic allusion of the Truth (asha) being opposed to by the Lie (druj), a moral duality that may have emerged from the proto-Indo-Iranian distinction between two categories of spiritual beings, ahuras and daevas, which by Zoroaster's time were popularly identified as the 'right' divinities who uphold moral law being opposed by the class of 'wrong' divinities, those portrayed as demonic and destructive. In Zoroaster's revelation, Ahura Mazda will ultimately triumph (Yasna 48.1), but cannot (or will not) control the forces of "the Lie" in the here and now.

Achaemenid era Zoroastrianism developed the abstract concepts of heaven, hell, personal and final judgement, all of which are only alluded to in the Gathas. In Yasna 19, which has only survived as a Sassanid era commentary ("Zend") on the Ahuna Vairya invocation, Zoroastrianism prescribes a Path to Judgement known as the Chinvat Peretum or Chinvat Bridge (cf: Al-Sirat in Islam), which all souls had to cross, and judgement (over thoughts, words, deeds performed during a lifetime) was passed as they were doing so. However, the Zoroastrian personal judgement is not final. At the end of time, when evil is finally defeated, all souls will be ultimately reunited with their Fravashi. Thus, Zoroastrianism can be said to be a Universalist religion with respect to salvation.

Additionally, there are six abstract terms that are regarded as direct emanations or aspects of Ahura Mazda. In early texts of the Avesta, these 'divine sparks' are classified as the Amesha Spenta, who in later Avestan literature are personified as an archangel retinue. A multitude of other lesser divinities constitute the lower echelons of the Zoroastrian hierarchy of angels, collectively known as the Yazatas, which may be reabsorptions of pre-Zoroastrian divinities.

Some Zoroastrians believe in the future coming of a Messiah-like figure known as The Peshotan.

Zoroastrian precepts

The Zoroastrian temple of Yazd.

Some major Zoroastrian precepts:

• Equalism: Equality of all, irrespective of gender, race, or religion.
• Respect and kindness towards all living things. Condemnation of the oppression of human beings, cruelty against animals and sacrifice of animals.
• Environmentalism: Nature is central to the practice of Zoroastrianism and many important Zoroastrian annual festivals are in celebration of nature: new year on the first day of spring, the water festival in summer, the autumn festival at the end of the season, and the mid-winter fire festival.
• Hard work and charity: Laziness and sloth are frowned upon. Zoroastrians are encouraged to part with a little of what would otherwise be their own.
• Loyalty and faithfulness to "family, settlement, tribe, and country."

Other distinguishing characteristics

• The symbol of fire: The energy of the creator is represented in Zoroastrianism by fire and the sun which are both enduring, radiant, pure and life sustaining. Zoroastrians usually pray in front of some form of fire (or any source of light). (It is important to note that fire is not worshipped by Zoroastrians, but is used simply as symbol and a point of focus, much like the crucifix in Christianity.)
• Proselytizing and conversion: Parsi Zoroastrians do not proselytize. In recent years however Zoroastrian communities in both Iran and in west have been more tolerant in conversion, although this move has not been supported officially by the priesthood in Mumbai, India.
• Inter-faith marriages: As in many other faiths, Zoroastrians are strongly encouraged to marry others of the same faith, but this is not a requirement of the religion itself.
• * Some members of the Parsi community of Indian Zoroastrians contend that a child must have a Parsi father to be eligible for introduction into the faith, but this assertion is considered by most to be a violation of the Zoroastrian tenets of gender equality, and may be a remnant of an old legal definition (since overruled) of Parsi. However, to this day, some priests will not perform the Navjote ceremony - i.e. the rites of admission into the religion - for children of mixed-marriages, irrespective of which parent is a non-Parsi. This issue is a matter of great debate within the Parsi community (see also Definition of Parsi), but with the increasingly global nature of modern society and the dwindling number of Zoroastrians, such opinions are less vociferous than they previously were.
• * In Iran, due to continuing discrimination against non-Muslims, inter-faith marriage is not encouraged by the government.
• Death and burial: Religious rituals related to death are all concerned with the person's soul and not the body. Zoroastrians believe that on the fourth day after death, the human soul leaves the body and the body remains as an empty shell. Traditionally, Zoroastrians disposed of their dead by leaving them atop open-topped enclosures, called Towers of Silence, or Dokhmas. Vultures and the weather would clean the flesh off the bones, which were then placed into an ossuary at the center of the Tower. Fire and Earth were considered too sacred for the dead to be placed in them. While this practice is continued in India by some Parsis, it had ended by the beginning of the twentieth century in Iran. In India, burial and cremation are becoming increasingly popular alternatives.

Adherents

Zoroastrian fire temples, as well as community centers (which are more common in the diaspora than temples, because of fire-consecration issues) are also found wherever Zoroastrian communities exist. Zoroastrian centers throughout North America and the world are increasingly finding themselves in need of expanding their physical structures to accommodate growing enthusiasm and interest amongst local Zoroastrian communities.^{[[Citing sources citation needed]]}

Zoroastrians in Iran have, like other religious minorities, survived centuries of persecution. Communities exist in Tehran, as well as in Yazd and Kerman, where many still speak an Iranian language distinct from Persian. They call their language Dari (not to be confused with the Dari of Afghanistan). Their language is also called Gabri or Behdinan (literally "Of the Good Religion"). Sometimes their language is named for the cities in which it is spoken, Yazdi or Kermani.

Parsis in India have, by contrast, enjoyed tolerance and even admiration from their Hindu countrymen. While the communities there are socioeconomically diverse, Parsis have gained a reputation for their education and widespread influence in all aspects of society, partly due to the divisive strategy of British colonialism which favored certain minorities. As such, Parsis are generally more affluent than other Indians and are stereotypically viewed as among the most Anglicised and "Westernised" of Indian minority groups. They have also played an instrumental role in the economic development of the country over many decades; several of the most well known business conglomerates of India are run by people of Parsi descent, including Tata, Godrej, and Wadia families.

There is a growing interest among Iranians, as well as people in various Central Asian countries such as Tajikistan and Kazakhstan, in their ancient Zoroastrian heritage; many people in these countries now consider themselves Zoroastrian. In fact, UNESCO (at the instigation of the government of Tajikistan) declared 2003 a year to celebrate the "3000th Anniversary of Zoroastrian Culture," with special events throughout the world.

Until 2002 the worldwide population figures for Zoroastrians had been estimated at anywhere between 180,000 and 250,000. NOTE: diaspora or worldwide population figures include both Parsis and Iranians. There is no way to estimate numbers of Parsis alone except when referring to India and Pakistan. India's 2001 Census found 69,601 Parsi Zoroastrians, in Pakistan they number 5000, mostly living in Karachi. North America is thought to be home to 18,000-25,000 Zoroastrians of both Parsi and Iranian background. Iran's figures of Zoroastrians have ranged widely. Iranian Zoroastrians were historically derogotarily called Gabar (roughly translated as 'infidel') by Muslim neighbours. The term is still used but has lost much of its derogatory meaning.

Since 2002 population estimates have been sharply increased. Recent publications of many major encyclopedias and world alamanacs include population estimates of 2 to 3.5 million. [link]

Currently, there is a dynamic and vibrant network of Zoroastrian associations throughout the world, including many major and minor conferences, which link many Zoroastrians of different cultural origins and regional residences.

Famous Parsis include the founder of Indian Civil Aviation and legendary industrialist J. R. D. Tata; Indian freedom fighters Pherozeshah Mehta, Dadabhai Naoroji and Bhikaiji Cama; musicians symphonic conductor Zubin Mehta and rock icon Freddie Mercury (Farrokh Bulsara); nuclear scientist Homi J. Bhabha, the similarly-named philosopher Homi K. Bhabha; the first field marshall of India Sam Manekshaw, screenwriter Sooni Taraporevala (of the films Salaam Bombay and Mississippi Masala), both directed by Mira Nair, as well as author of a photography book on the Parsi community entitled Parsis: The Zoroastrians of India: a Photographic Journey); and authors Rohinton Mistry, and Bapsi Sidhwa. Indian industrial families Tata family, Godrej family and Wadia family are also of Parsi Zoroastrian background.

Famous Zoroastrians from the more recently arrived Irani community include legendary Bollywood director Ardeshir Irani, the actress Aruna Irani, the cricketer Ronnie Irani, the famous Indian spiritual master Meher Baba and the actress Perizaad Zorabian.

One of the most famous Iranian Zoroastrians is Dr. Farhang Mehr, former deputy prime minister of Iran, Boston University professor emeritus, longtime activist for religious freedom, and subject of the biography "Triumph Over Discrimination" by another Zoroastrian (of Parsi and Haitian descent), Lylah M. Alphonse.

The few famous non-Asians that follow Zoroastrianism include Swedish songwriter Alexander Bard.

See also

• Indo-European religion
• Mazdakism
• Manichaeism

Bibliography

• [ ]

• The Bible. [Isaiah 44] and [Isaiah 45].